Children cannot grow up as solitary individuals

â€Å" Our kids ‘s jobs begin in the place, and can be solved at place. † Rearing is cardinal to the endurance and success of the human race. Everyone who has of all time lived has had parents, and most grownups in the universe become parents. Opinions about rearing abound, but surprisingly small solid scientific information or considered contemplation exists about rearing. Rearing is a occupation whose primary object of attending and action is the kid. Children do non and can non turn up as lone persons but parenting is besides a position in the life class with effects for parents themselves ( Femmie Juffer, 2007 ) 5.â€Å" Children Begin by loving their parents ; as they grow older they judge them ; sometimes they forgive them. †Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Academy award Wilde ( English humourist )Since Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby discovered that kids use their parents as a secure base to carry through their fond regard and geographic expedition demands, an impressive organic structure of empirical research has been devoted to the hunt for the beginnings and effects of ( in ) secure child-parent attachment relationships. Secure attachment relationships have been associated with better societal competency and with more optimum parent and peer relationships than insecure fond regards. The construct of secure attachment relationships and the related construct of parental sensitiveness appear to be extremely important for the clinical field, including the development and rating of attachment-based intercessions for at-risk and clinical households. The most of import portion of parenting is love and seting in clip and energy to back up kids. Although love is the most of import demand, it is non plenty. Unless parents understand their kids ‘s unique demands, they are unable to give their kids what kids today need. Parents may be giving love, but non in ways that are most helpful to their kid ‘s development.â€Å" Without an apprehension of their kids ‘s demands, parents can non efficaciously back up their kids. †On the other manus, some parents are â€Å" willing † to pass more clip with their kids, but do n't because they do n't cognize what to make or their kids reject their attempts. So many parents try to speak with their childs, but their childs merely shut up and state nil. These parents are willing, but do n't cognize how to acquire their childs to speak. Some parents do n't desire to shout at, hit, or penalize their kids, but they merely do n't cognize another manner. Since speaking with t heir kids has non worked, penalty or the menace of penalty is the lone manner they know.â€Å" To give up old ways of parenting, new ways must be employed. †The universe is sing a crisis in rearing. Every twenty-four hours, there are increasing studies of kid and adolescent force, low self-pride, Attention Deficit Disorder, drug usage, adolescent gestation, and self-destruction. Almost all parents today are oppugning both the new and old ways of rearing. Nothing seems to be working, and our kids ‘s jobs continue to increase. Some parents believe that these jobs come from being excessively permissive and giving kids excessively much, while others contend that out-of-date patterns of parenting, like paddling and shouting, are responsible. Others believe that these new jobs are caused by negative alterations in society. Excessively much Television, advertisement, or excessively much force and sex on Television and in films are pegged by many as the perpetrators. Surely society and how it influences our kids are portion of the job, and some helpful solutions can be legislated by the authorities, but the biggest portion of the job starts at place. Our kids ‘s jobs begin in the place and can be solved at place. Besides looking to alter society, parents must besides recognize that they hold the power to raise strong, confident, concerted, and compassionate kids. To get by with the alterations in society, parents need to alter their parenting attack. During the past two hundred old ages, society has made an historic and dramatic alteration towards greater single freedom and rights. Even though our modern Western society is now organized by the rules of freedom and human rights, parents still use rearing accomplishments from the Dark Ages. Parents need to update their parenting accomplishments to raise healthy and concerted kids and teens. Businesss know that if they are to remain competitory in the free market, they need to maintain changing and updating. Likewise, if parents want their kids to be able to vie in the free universe, they must fix their kids with the most effectual and modern attacks to rearing ( John Gray, 2007 ) 11. Several societal tendencies are now disputing parent-child relationships. Single parent households may be the most at hazard. Although, there ever have been individual parents in the United States, the causes of lone parenting have changed. Single parents of old coevalss were chiefly widows and widowmans. Parents are now more likely to be individual because of divorce or ne'er being married. Individual parents in today ‘s society may be more stray and possibly more disillusioned than the individual parents of the yesteryear. The concluding study of the National Commission on Children, approximately 25 per centum ( more than 16 million ) kids lived with merely one parent in 1989, twice every bit many as in 1970. Parental employment places a great strain on parent-child relationships. Parents may hold to depend on other health professionals, for illustration, to put bounds and supply counsel during their kids ‘s formative old ages. Between 1970 and 1990, the proportion of female parents with kids under age six who were working or looking for work outside their places rose from 32 per centum to 58 per centum. Today, about 10.9 million kids under six have female parents in the paid labour force ( National Commission on Children, 1991 ) 74. Three facets of rearing have been highlighted as cardinal to kids ‘s early linguistic communication and acquisition: ( 1 ) the frequence of kids ‘s engagement in everyday acquisition activities ( e.g. , shared book reading, storytelling ) ; ( 2 ) the quality of caregiver-child battles ( e.g. , parents ‘ cognitive stimulation and sensitivity/responsiveness ) ; and ( 3 ) the proviso of age-appropriate acquisition stuffs ( e.g. , books and plaything ) . Early on and consistent engagement in everyday acquisition activities, such as shared book reading, storytelling, and learning about the letters of the alphabet, supply kids with a critical foundation for early acquisition, linguistic communication growing and emergent literacy. A overplus of surveies besides indicate that the quality of parent-caregiver interactions play a formative function in kids ‘s early linguistic communication and acquisition ( Tamis-LeMonda, 2009 ) 52. In the yesteryear, psychologists analyzing the development of kids focused about entirely on kids ‘s relationships with their female parents. Today, they have come to hold that male parents play a unique and important function in fostering and steering kids ‘s development. Many experts now believe that male parents can be merely as nurturing and sensitive with their babes as female parents. As their kids turn, male parents take on added functions of steering their kids ‘s rational and societal development. Even when a male parent is ‘just playing ‘ with his kids, he is fostering their development ( Ross Parke, 2006 ) 25.Need FOR THE STUDYThe National Commission on Children ‘s national study titled Speaking of Kids ( 1991 ) studies that a bulk of American grownups, irrespective of age, race, matrimonial, or parental position believe that it is harder to be a parent today than it used to be ( 88 per centum ) and that parents today frequently are unsu re about what is the right thing to make in raising their kids ( 86 per centum ) . Compared to ten old ages ago, respondents believed kids today are worse off with regard to their moral and spiritual preparation ( 53 per centum ) and the supervising and subject they receive from their parents ( 56 per centum ) . Children themselves wished that their parents were more persevering in puting and implementing regulations. Thirty-nine per centum of kids 10-17 said they â€Å" sometimes † wished their parents were stricter or maintain a closer ticker over them and their lives. Another 8 per centum said they wish this a batch. Merely about 1 per centum said they â€Å" ne'er † wanted their parents to be stricter or more attentive. Because of the rapid gait of alteration in our society and an increasing consciousness of and esteem for cultural and values diverseness, parents will go on to be challenged to spread out on traditional manners of childrearing. The wellbeing of our state ‘s kids is clearly at hazard. Harmonizing to the National Commission on Children ( 1991 ) , one in four striplings prosecute in societal behaviours that can take to serious longterm trouble ; many more are vulnerable for future jobs ( National Commission on Children, 1991 ) 72. Most parents do their best to supply a loving and nurturing atmosphere for their kids. Poor rearing includes the undermentioned behaviours: Maltreatment An environment where there is a batch of reasoning and struggle Ignoring the kid Some parents are overwhelmed by their ain personal state of affairss and are unable to look after their kids ‘s demands suitably. The kids who were ignored or who lived in high-stress families had problem showing themselves verbally. They besides had problem with societal accomplishments. Sharing plaything was hard for them, and they had problem playing. The British survey concluded that the deprived kids really started preschool with developing encephalons. The kids who were holding problem with their societal accomplishments could be helped if they received intensive aid from their instructors. Unfortunately, instructors are busy caring for the full category and have problem happening the clip to give the kids who are behind the degree of attending they need ( JC Redmond, 2009 ) 66. A survey by UNICEF of 21 industrialised states, An Overview of Child Wellbeing in Rich Countries ( 2007 ) , came to the singular decision that there is no strong relationship between per capita GDP and kid well-being. A government-funded reappraisal in Britain of research crossing 25 old ages found that the incidence of many mental wellness jobs in kids had doubled since the 1970s. Today, one in 10 British kids – that ‘s more than a million – suffers from a clinically recognizable upset, such as depression, anxiousness, anorexia or terrible anti-social behavior ( Tom McGurk, 2009 ) 71. â€Å" Surveies have shown that kids who go through their parents ‘ divorce have more behavior jobs, symptoms of psychological maladjustment, lower academic accomplishment, Social troubles and debatable relationships with both parents. In United States of America, reported statistics Tells that Children from fatherless places are: 5 times more likely to perpetrate self-destruction 32 times more likely to run off from place. 20 times more likely to hold behavioural upsets 14 times more likely to perpetrate colza. 9 times more likely to drop out of high school. 10 times more likely to mistreat chemical substances ( become drug nuts ) 9 times more likely to stop up in a state-operated establishment 20 times more likely to stop up in prison. 3 million teenage misss have sexually transmitted diseases At least 1 out of 4 adolescents ( between 14years to 19years ) suffer from sexually transmitted diseases ( CRISP, 2009 ) 73. Some of the rough worlds faced by kids in India are presented below: Less than half of India ‘s kids between the age 6 and 14 merely go to school. 95 in every 1000 kids born in India do non see their 5th birthday. Amongst married adult females in India today, 75 % were under age at the clip of their matrimonies. 58 % of India ‘s kids below the age of 2 old ages are non to the full vaccinated. And 24 % of these kids do non have any signifier of inoculation. More that 50 % of India ‘s kids are malnourished. More than 50 per cent of misss fail to inscribe in school ; those who do are likely to drop out by the age of 12. CHILD LABOR 19 % of kids are employed for domestic aid. 25 % of the victims of commercial sexual development in India are below 18 old ages of age. Large Numberss of kids work merely because there is no alternate – since, they do non hold entree to good quality schools. Poor and bonded households frequently â€Å" sell † their kids to contractors who promise moneymaking occupations in the metropoliss and the kids end up being employed in whorehouses, hotels and domestic work. Many run off and happen a life on the streets ( Sharanam Centre, 2007 ) 75. Everyone knows good parenting is good for the wellness of kids, but surveies show that good parenting besides consequences in kids who grow up to be healthier grownups. Research indicates that grownups who had nerve-racking relationships with their parents in childhood are more likely to endure from disease in midlife. â€Å" Since parents are normally the most meaningful beginning of societal support for much of early life, the perceptual experience of parental lovingness, and parental loving itself, may hold of import regulative and prognostic effects on biological and psychological wellness and unwellness † ( Claudia M. Lenart, 2009 ) 55. Joint detention and shared parenting ( i.e. , joint physical and legal detention ) have been studied for more than a quarter-century, with the bulk of surveies bespeaking important benefits for kids. When parents cooperate and minimise struggle, kids do better with shared parenting/joint physical detention.Rearing Can Overrule Effect of Genes in How Babies Respond to Stress, the survey found both cistrons and rearing were of import to the development of how babies ‘ encephalon which helps to modulate cardiac responses to emphasize. The findings suggest that although cistrons play a function in the development of physiological responses to emphasize, environmental experiences such as female parents ‘ sensitive care-giving behaviour can hold a strong influence, adequate to alter the consequence that cistrons have on physiology really early in life ( W. Roger Mills-Koonce, 2008 ) 68.It has been known for a long clip that life in poorness amendss kids ‘s rational abilit ies. Good Rearing Raises Kids ‘ Mental Skills. Survey Shows Better Parenting Skills Sharpen Minds of Kids in Poverty ( Martin Downs, 2008 ) 62.Babies need predictability and security, which they get when their female parent and male parent respond systematically, quickly, and suitably to their calls, smilings and other signals. As a babe develops a relationship with his or her female parent and male parent, he comes to prefer them to other grownups, in a procedure known as fond regard. Psychologists agree that babes with secure fond regards to their parents have better opportunities to develop into happy, successful, and well-balanced kids and grownups.The research worker had personal experience about the effects of rearing both its ailment effects and good effects. Investigator being specialising in the field community wellness nursing felt the demand and was motivated to carry on the survey on cognition sing the parenting roles among the twosomes of urban and rural community and learn them about rearing functions with the aid of multimedia bundle.STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMâ€Å" A comparative survey to measure the effectivity of multimedia bundle on cognition sing rearing functions among the twosomes of selected urban and rural community † .AimTo measure the bing degree of cognition sing rearing functions among twosomes of the urban and rural community. To measure the effectivity of multimedia bundle on cognition sing rearing functions among twosomes of the urban and rural community. To compare the pretest and posttest degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the twosomes of urban and rural community. To compare the pretest and posttest degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the male and female parent of urban and rural community. To compare the pretest and posttest degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the male parent of the urban and rural community. To compare the pretest and posttest degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the female parent of the urban and rural community. To tie in the average betterment of cognition mark on rearing functions with the selected demographic variables.OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONSEffectivenessRefers to the result of the multimedia bundle sing rearing functions among twosomes of urban and rural community, which will be evaluated by the structured cognition questionnaire prepared by the research worker.Multimedia PackageRefers to logically designed information ‘s with the usage of modern media to discourse and learn sing rearing functions. This bundle consists of learning stuff in the signifier of ocular literacy and picture in a sequence which explains the parent ‘s function in general parenting, developmental mileposts, cognitive development, moral development and acquisition disablements.RearingIt refers to the public presentation of assorted functions and activities of raising a kid instead than the biological relationship by the parents.Rearing FunctionsIt refers to the function of the parents in raising the kid . Roles included in this survey are about General Parenting which includes significance and constructs of Responding, Preventing, Monitoring, Mentoring and Modeling ; Developmental Milestones which includes significance, designation of age specific undertakings of the kids, ways to assist the kid to achieve mileposts ; Cognitive Development which includes significance, phases of cognitive development and ways to better the cognitive development ; Moral Development which includes significance, phases of moral development and ways to better the moral development of the kid and Learning Disabilities which includes significance, causes, early warning marks and ways to take attention of kid with such job.CognitionRefers to the ability of twosomes to understand and reply the inquiry on rearing functions as elicited by structured cognition questionnaire.CouplesHusband and married woman of selected urban and rural community with 1-6 year of married life holding kids.PremiseCouples may hold some cognition sing rearing functions. Adequate cognition on rearing functions may assist the twosomes to supply effectual parenting. Adequate cognition sing rearing functions may forestall many childhood jobs.NULL HYPOTHESESNH1: There is no important difference between pre and station trial degree of cognition sing rearing functions among the urban and rural twosomes at the degree of P & lt ; 0.05 NH2: There is no important difference between pre and station trial degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the urban and rural twosomes at the degree of P & lt ; 0.05 NH3: There is no important difference between pre and station trial degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the male and female parent of urban and rural community at the degree of P & lt ; 0.05 NH4: There is no important difference between pre and station trial degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the urban male parent and rural male parent at the degree of P & lt ; 0.05 NH5: There is no important difference between pre and station trial degree of cognition sing rearing functions between the urban female parent and rural female parent at the degree of P & lt ; 0.05 NH6: There is no important association between the average betterment cognition mark on rearing functions and selected demographic variables of the urban and rural twosomes at the degree of P & lt ; 0.05Boundary lineThe survey is delimited to a period of four hebdomad. The survey is delimited to the twosomes populating under the same roof.CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA conceptual model or theoretical account is made up of constructs that are mental image of a phenomenon. These constructs are linked together to show their relationship between them. The conceptual model is based on TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL/ SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL ( JAMES.O.PROCHASKA ) . This model consists of the undermentioned elements.PRECONTEMPLATION:The theory says that the Individual has the job ( whether he/she recognizes it or non ) and has no purpose of altering and goes through the procedure of Consciousness raising ( information and cognition ) , Dramatic alleviation ( function playing ) and Environmental reevaluation ( how job affects physical environment ) . In this survey the research worker perceives the importance of the job and prepares the multimedia bundle with extended reappraisal of literature and expert ‘s sentiment to better the cognition of twosomes in selected urban and rural community sing the parenting functions on general parenting, kid ‘s cognitive development, developmental mileposts, moral development and acquisition disablements.Contemplation:This phase involves the Individual ‘s acknowledgment of the job and he/she is earnestly believing about altering and goes through the procedure of Self-reevaluation ( measuring one ‘s feelings sing behaviour ) . In this survey the research worker approaches the twosomes of selected urban and rural community and obtains their consent to take part in the survey after supplying equal information sing the demand for the survey and benefits thereby makes the twosomes to go cognizant of the job.Preparation:In this phase the single recognizes the job and intends to alter the behaviour through the procedure of Self-liberation ( committedness or belief in ability to alter ) . In this survey the research worker conducts the pre trial appraisal of cognition sing rearing functions among the twosomes of selected urban and rural community with the aid of the structured questionnaire. The structured interview agenda consists of demographic variables like age, gender, educational position, business, household income per month, faith, type of household, no of old ages of married life, no of life kids, age of the kid, topographic point of life, manner of acquiring information about parenting and structured questionnaire incorporating inquiries sing rearing functions on general parenting, kid ‘s cognitive development, moral development, developmental mileposts and larning disablements. The research worker prepares the twosomes for deriving the cognition sing rearing functions.Action:In this phase the Individual has enacted consistent behaviour alteration through the procedure of Reinforcement direction, Helping relationships, Counterconditioning and Stimulus control. In this survey the research worker by supplying the multimedia bundle which consists of talk in the signifier of pictural and picture shows sing rearing functions on general parenting, kid ‘s cognitive development, moral development, developmental mileposts and larning disablements provides a assisting relationship to derive equal cognition to supply good parenting to their kids.Care:In this phase single maintains new behaviour. In this survey the research worker conducts the station trial appraisal of cognition after one hebdomad from the twenty-four hours of intercession utilizing the same structured questionnaire which was used for pre trial to cognize the betterment in the cognition. If twosomes had equal cognition support was given by supplying brochure as care of cognition and twosomes with unequal cognition reappraisal was done.OUTLINE OF THE REPORTChapter I: Dealt with the background of the survey, need for the survey, statement of the job, aims, operational definitions , void hypotheses, premises, boundary lines and conceptual model. Chapter II: Deals with the reappraisal of related literature. Chapter III: Presents the methodological analysis of survey and program for informations analysis. Chapter IV: Focuss on informations analysis and reading. Chapter V: Enumerates the treatment of survey. Chapter VI: Gives the sum-up, decision, deductions, recommendations and restrictions. The study ends with selected Bibliography and Appendices.

Evaluate how school policies and procedures may be developed and communicated

In my setting policies and procedures are developed and communicated on an ongoing basis. Various teachers are responsible for individual policies based on their experience, training and knowledge. Each individual policy is available in the school office for reference via hard paper copy or electronically.If an issue arises that needs discussion which is not addressed by the school’s policies, a meeting will be scheduled were all interested parties will attend. At this meeting each attendee contributes ideas and initially a draft policy will hopefully be agreed. This draft policy will then be presented by the head teacher to the board of governors for their approval. If it is approved and falls within the domain of the national curriculum the new policy will have to be trained out to all the relevant staff and perhaps even parents and children.At my setting policies are monitored on an ongoing basis and are updated where necessary. Sometimes the local education authority may r equire a new policy to be introduced to the school. Again all existing staff may require training to ensure the new policy is communicated and implemented satisfactorily which may involve communication with others such as children, parents or other professional bodies. In my setting policies are communicated in a number ways.It can be written, for example classroom rules may be displayed on a poster and hung in a high profile area of the room. It can be verbal, for example the principal may present at the school assembly a topic of concern and what the school policy is for this concern. Letters and e mail, for example these can be posted to parents informing them of any new or change to current policy. This is often used when a written signed confirmation note is required back from the parents.To conclude the best way to inform all of school policy would be a one to one meeting between the head teacher and the relevant people. Unfortunately this would be highly impractical due to th e additional workload required and the time factor involved. Where the head teacher feels it would be of benefit to do a mass presentation to parents this is highly appropriate on a couple of occasions throughout the school year to gain parents attention but is important not to overdo it.

Food Channels Culture in Pakistan

To make something palatable and delicious, all u need is some boneless chicken, some cheese, fresh cream and mushrooms, mix well and fry in plenty of olive oil. Serve in Italian crockery and garnish with French olives. Stay†¦Please doesn’t rush to the kitchen. I am only reminding you that this is the actual way of cooking, we hear these days. I am sure you all are well aware of the timings of your favorite and famous cooking shows. It is the time when every sister mother and possibly you too hang in front of TV set with a pen and note pad to note down the recipe of mouth watering dishes.By taking a U-turn from cultural Aloo Gosht, one might feel himself a part of this fashionable era. Food has always been a big part of the Pakistani culture, but with the current revolution in the means of media, the food industry in Pakistan seems to have exploded. Food is ubiquitous in Pakistan. Exclusive food channels are growing day by day which broadcast cooking shows throughout the d ay. Newspapers and magazines are filled with advertisements and recipes for food items.One might even get the impression that the Pakistanis live to eat, rather than the other way around. And yet, buried underneath this apparent feast of excesses, lies a shameful secret. Pakistan is the country where people are deprived of basic necessities of life; easy approach to food has become a misery. This is the time when the country has faced a catastrophic flood which has devastated 1/5th of the country and affected 20 million people. Food crisis are bigger then tsunami and millions of people have been starving.Still the motto of our cooking channels is â€Å"eat all; enjoy all†. The present state in which we survive, simplicity is the best policy. In the contrary the cooking channels promote extravagancy. Each program prepares three to six dishes at a time and also promotes the idea of starters and sweet dish along with the main meal. Separate meal for the children is out of questi on. By watching this, one may assume that the children are born to eat burgers, French fries, nuggets and drinks. The ingredients, used in cooking shows, compete the gold prices.Every meal starts with boneless chicken and ends up with the display of foreign crockery. The people, who can afford this, have their meals in five star restaurants or in the home, made by their cook. The rests stay desperate and heart broken. The channels claim that the way to win the goodwill of husband and in laws is through the kitchen. Obviously in a country like Pakistan nobody can deny the above statement but the question is what the husband would do when his wife will spend half of his month’s salary in her one day’s cooking experience.Ultimately the goodwill will convert to ill will. Our religion commands us to lead a simple life and Our Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) is the best example of it. Hadith says that â€Å"Who ever adopts moderation can not be bankrupt†. In the curr ent scenario Pakistan can not afford such extravagancy. Cooking shows are not inadequate if they are really earnest in training women and society in simple and positive manner. Food is a basic human right and a necessity but eating food should not be a luxury.

Assignment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Assignment 3 - Essay Example Scientists describe dark energy as a form of energy in space that accelerates the expansion of the universe. Evidence of dark energy is through: the supernovae, large-scale structure theory, observational Hubble constant data, late-time integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect and the measurement of the cosmic microwave background (Sarkar, pg33). The proponents of the top down scenario proposed that the structure forms through the collapse of a huge gas cloud and as the cloud collapses the gas forms a rapidly rotating disk which is the galaxy (Sarkar, pg55). The bottom-up scenario, on the other hand, involves the merging of smaller objects to form large ones, which mean that galaxies form by the coalescence of smaller structures to form one huge structure. The age of the earth and formation of the various specular objects is the point of contention among the scientists for many centuries. However, there are features and theories which strongly suggest that the earth is at least a million years old: One of the theories tested is the calculation of the rate at which the salt is delivered to the ocean. The level of salt in river water is small and since most rivers flow into oceans measuring the evaporative concentration of the salts reveals that the age of the earth is more than a million years. The thickness of total sedimentary record divided by the average sedimentation rates also yields the same conclusion that the earth is more than a million years

Project Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project Managment - Essay Example The scope of this event covers offering the better management and support in arranging overall winter themed event in a new holiday park. Our team is going to arrange, manage and control the overall activities for the installation of the ice rinks and managing the concert at the park. In this scenario we are aimed at offering better services and opportunities to the public. This project is also aimed at offering effective management skills to overall activities of the project. The management of the new holiday park who is going to hold this event is main stakeholder of this event. After that our project management firm is also a stakeholder in this event. Most importantly public is a main stakeholder in this event. Since, the public will go to view and enjoy this event. Cost Risks: In holding event at the new holiday park we can face risk regarding the overall project completion within allocated project budget. In this scenario if project takes more cost or time the overall project cost will increase that will lead toward the failure of overall project. To complete this project within allocated time we need to plan the overall resource in way that it could offer better control on overall project costing and resource consumption. Time Risks: In this project we can have time related risk. Thus, to mitigate this kind of risk we need to complete this project within allocated time and resources. For this task we need to plan the project in a better way. Thus, we will require paying more attention on WBS and project time plan. Technical Risks: In this project we can face critical technical risks. The main risk is about the installation of the ice rinks that can involve some technical complexity. In this regard we need to establish some back up technical plan to manage this type of risks. Social Risks: In this event establishment we can disturb to local public. To effectively manage the local public affairs we need to make a social committee that can consult and

Literary Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Literary Analysis - Essay Example To be educated is to be well informed. Education assumes that it is a lifetime development not only in sixteen years of training, but also throughout an individual’s life. Therefore, this paper seeks to highlight different characteristics of education basing on Jon Spayde’s definitions. It also reviews his book on education and training. To be educated involves being well acquainted with what is learnt. This normally takes place and is developed throughout the networks we make in the world. A strong education, according to Spayed, is one that is acquired through the best combination we can make in school, online exploration, poetry classes and salon (Spayde, 1998, p.66). Education should also entail learning and exploring ideas and skills outside classroom. To be educated hence involves to be equated with a preparation for competitiveness. Multiculturalists believe education has become a battle line. Therefore, it is through education and being educated where we duke ou t frequently with the angry neo-traditionalists. To be educated is to be adequately prepared for the contemporary world and the ever-advancing knowledge and science and technology (Spayde, 1998, p.67). Spayde believes firmly that not all the classical American generation have doubt about the education matters. There are two types of education and these include formal and informal forms of education. Formal education is the inner core of being educated. It was a serious boundary between those we consider well educated and the least educated. Talking about being educated, therefore, involves class. Class has brought into existence superiority and power in the modern society. Jon Spayde, in his book, expresses different definitions and ideas people hold on education. Spayde asserts that education consists of life experiences. People have to discover equilibrium between a self-learning and an academic education. Spayde advocates for education that comprises of virtue such as integrity, co-operation and responsibility (Spayde, 1998, p.57). A school education may not prepare an individual for the real world, but self-education ensures. Nevertheless, John Spayde feels that a school education has particular worth. He also explains that class and education are about power. Spayed claims, in his book, that education must be both life and academic experiences (Spayde, 1998, p.67). This idea is strongly supported by his colleagues who also assert that a definite focus should be put on education. His answers, therefore, fulfil all his implicit promises. He believes that technology runs the modern world and that everybody should embrace technology. Additionally, Spayde asserts that technical training will soon become out-dated anyway. Miles Harvey, a journalist, believes that debates on teaching are downhearted to a time concern. Learning is time consuming and that is why most people are only interested in learning and focusing on particular academic disciplines. According to Elizabeth Sutton Lawrence, the self-education goes as early as during the Greek times. The vision and goals of California state university Monterey Bay is being academic community plural model where all respect one another during the learning process for a mutual benefit (Spayde, 1998, p.68) This was known as in-the-street education where the early Greek education was brought largely from the experiences in the market places. Socrates met and dared his students in the

Journal write whats on your mind Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Journal write whats on your mind - Assignment Example I felt weak and I wanted to get better much faster. Each day I woke up, I was asking myself, when will be over? Soon enough, I recovered, though for two weeks after that, I lost weight because of the trauma of the stomach flu that affected my appetite. Stomach flu is such a terrible disease to get during summer. I felt I wasted so much time on such a horrible illness. I am happy to be graduating soon. I feel that I will have greater independence in college and I have more opportunities to develop different and new knowledge and skills. Still, I am also fearful. What should I take in college? Why should I take it? Do I really know who I want to be when I grow up? I do not know the answers yet. I am in the process of understanding what I want and what I need. I want a degree that will help me fight for my real dreams. What are my dreams anyway? I have to think about college further and consider many options. Sometimes, having too many options is not that good. It takes me to make decisions longer. It makes me feel unsure of decisions that I already made. On the contrary, having many options means freedom too. It gives me the freedom to consider other opportunities in life. Oh what to do in college? I am unsure. I know I must be a good time-management person because I have a social life despite being busy in school. Sometimes, I have to admit I neglect school activities because I choose to do my extra-curricular activities or family and friend activities. I want to enjoy my life, but I do not want to have poor school grades. I am aware of my grades and I want to make my parents happy through high grades. High grades tell them I appreciate their hard work and sacrifice and that I want to make them feel proud of me. What I do to balance different activities is I try to schedule my time among these activities. I set aside time for school assignments and then time for family, friends and other things I want to do. I would love to be active in sports too or

Outline why can change be a problem for organisations Essay

Outline why can change be a problem for organisations - Essay Example rganizations’ strategies as well as structures guarantee that the company is present and willing to do more than just provide products and services to the end consumers. It wants to make the people realize that the company is there and wants to do its very best by tailoring its strategies in such a manner that can only benefit them nonetheless. A company or an organization without the target people is nothing more than an office set up with employees and employers working for no one, at the end of the day. Also the fact that organizations need to evolve over a period of time is testimony enough for them to grow within themselves and thus adopt and hold on to a new path altogether, one that will be their torchbearer as well as reap rich dividends for them not only in the present times but also in the future. These strategies are so much in alignment with the future goals and tactical perspectives that they fulfill what is really expected of them, both in terms of short term expectations as well as the long run. Planning is thus the key word here and for any multinational to succeed in the long run, it is of paramount significance to have a safe and sound plan ready and not only that but also be proactive in its approach towards the accomplishment of the plan nonetheless. (Shiplett, 2000) The basis of all strategies and structural changes that usually happen from time to time is on the shoulders of the top management where they have to decide whether or not the adopted strategy be the source of light in the coming quarters or years for that matter. It is only upon their insistence to have the same within their ranks that the new strategic planning is done in the first place. If the top management is not ready, it is very difficult for the knowledge organization, which really is the middle management of present times, to do even an iota of struggle. The multinationals for that matter depend a lot on the parental concerns, which at times, might be located off

Don't Know Much About History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Don't Know Much About History - Essay Example Nevertheless, in historical ages when American educational system was being conceptualized and developed, no one was interested to view the ideas from various schools of thought as complimentary but everyone was committed to prove that their part of the elephant is the best and they know the creature better than others. The neo-classical philosophers were of the view that schooling system should be designed with the help of their philosophy alone and that of others should be discarded. In the history of American schooling system, four distinct intellectual groups tried to influence the educational system and mechanism of the country. The first group is known as the humanistic school of thought that argued that schooling system must be designed in such a way that it should help in communication, prioritization and internalization of cultural norms and civic concepts in the mind of the next generation. The second group was in love with the novel concept of child development and conveye d that the schooling system must insure psychological and spiritual growth of students. The growth of students must be attained with the help of modifying and designing teaching and schooling according to various different needs of the students (Kliebard pp. 148). Then, another intellectual group emerged and it said that the schools must make the students learn the art and science of being a contributive human being. The focus of this group remained on the societal role of the individual in carrying forward the entire society in terms of economics, arts, and sciences. Finally, the re-constructivist approach appeared that stated that the schools are there to bring a vast scale social and political change in the community every now and then (Kliebard pp. 150). Highlights of Dinner with Philosophers from all Educational School of Thought Eliot invited Hall, Ayres and Counts to the dinner. Everyone was on time except Counts because he was busy in delivering lecture at the university and therefore, got late but rushed into the event approximately half an hour after its commencement. He apologized to everyone on the table, dragged his chair near to the host, and greeted him with warmth and respect. However, when he saw signs of annoyance on others’ faces then he seek refuge into stuffing his plate. The intellectual discussion started after the first round of wine and the host himself initiated it. He initially said that American schooling system is outdated and therefore, needs serious restructuring. He also added that he believes that the notion of ethics and civic virtue should be engraved in the students so that they should not indulge in crimes. Counts jumped into the discussion and argued that ethical standards of the society are closely related and correlated with economic outlook of the society and therefore, a man with a full belly can talk about righteousness. Ayres commented that we should classify our children into various groups in the light of th eir interests and capabilities and modify our teaching practices according to their learning needs. The discussion carried out and soon became a quarrel. The intellectual fight was interrupted by Counts when he noted that not all of the present approaches towards education are divergent but indeed, they are leading to the same objective that is human evolution. Everyone was stunned by the observation because each person was looking to

Mcdonald's case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Mcdonald's - Case Study Example In 2003, McDonalds reinvented its mission/vision by implementing a â€Å"Plan to win† strategy that focuses on becoming â€Å"bigger, not just better†. Action plans in implementing this strategy are to increase sales in every geographic segment of the business; to offer relevant menu to its 60 million customers per day, and to gain the confidence of stockholders by the profitability of its operation. McDonald uses 5 key strategies in implementing this plan, i.e. product, price, people, place and promotion (McDonalds 2009 annual report). In increasing sales in every geographic segment of the business thru franchising. Focused on brand availability, menu variety, beverage choice, convenience and day part expansion. McDonalds introduced McCafe and premium Angus third pounder, focused on classic favorites like big Mac and Quarter Pounder, and emphasized affordability in the US market; and in mid-2010s introduced frappes and smoothies. In all areas of operations, reinvestment was done in the facilities and equipments, opened stores in convenient areas, extended store hours, build up its drive through systems and offered locally relevant selections. The strategy included advertising and promotions. In U.S, drive-through systems, and cafà ©-ambiance were developed; in Europe, the portable snacks were popularized; in Germany, breakfast time was introduced and designed the same strategies in other areas where McDonalds is present. McDonalds joined the bandwagon of globalization and has developed franchised business in 119 countries. In 2010, McDonalds has 32,737 franchise units all over the world, an increase of 28% from 21,078 units in 2009 (McDonald’s Annual Report). This means the company has to work with franchise owners with diverse cultures, religion and ethnicity. The tactics of McDonalds is to adopt its menu to the culture and taste of the region, to hire and train locals to work in the

Employment Essay Example for Free

Employment Essay The Organization that we selected as our topic of discussion in our Project Paper is the Wal-Mart Corporation. Sam Walton is the founder of Wal-Mart. He opened his first store called Wal-Mart Discount City in Rogers, Arkansas in July of 1962. Their corporate office is currently located in Bentonville, Arkansas. Wal-Mart Stores Inc. incorporated its stores on October 31, 1969. In 1972, they started selling stock on the New York Stock exchange. Although, though the company has had controversial operational business practices they have grown to be the largest Retail Corporations in the world. In 1997, Wal-Mart was able to become the largest private employer in the United States. In that same year, their annual sales totaled over $105 billion. In 2010, Wal-Mart has over 2. 1 million employees worldwide. There 2010 fiscal year sales exceeded $400 billion dollars (Wal-Mart About Us, 2010). I have been a loyal customer of Wal-Mart for years. Therefore, I was shocked when I found out about some of Wal-Marts questionable unofficial policies through talks with friends and family members who worked for them in the past and some who currently employed by them. My mother in law worked for them from 2006 thru 2008. She was required to work 8-hour shifts without a lunch break on a regular basis. One of my cousins was required to clock out because he was about to be in overtime and continue to work to keep labor cost down. I decided to Google Wal-Mart, to see if other people experienced the same injustice. I was stunned to see some of the practices of this company I loyally supported. According to an article released by the Associated Press on 12/24/08 called Wal-Mart to Pay Workers Up to $640 Million it will pay as much as $640 million to settle 63 lawsuits over wage-and-hour violations, ending years of dispute. Wal-Mart faced 76 similar class action lawsuits in courts across the country as of March 31, 2008. These violations range from having employees clock out and continue to work without pay, denying them with lunch breaks that they are entitled to by law, non-payment for overtime worked. They have also had issues with discrimination against women, resulting, from denying them promotions and paying them less then their male counterpart even though they held the same position, and in some cases, women had seniority over the men (Associated 2008). It is widely known that Wal-Mart pays its associates below the average retail wages. In 2008, the average full time Associate (34 hours per week) earns $10. 84 hourly for an annual income of $19,165. That is $2,000 below the Federal Poverty Line for a family of four. In 2007, Wal-Mart CEO Lee Scott earned $29. 7 million in total compensation, or 1,551 times the annual income of the average full time Wal-Mart Associate. Consequently, large portions of their employees qualify to receive Government Assistance to support their families. They are well aware that they pay their fulltime employees below the poverty level. In fact, Wal-Mart actually encourages their employees to take advantage of the Government Assistant Programs (Wake Up Wal-Mart, 2008). Wal-Mart does not offer its associates affordable healthcare insurance benefits. According to Wal-Mart employees, when they complained about high the cost of the insurance and lack of coverage it offers their managers would simply suggest that they try to qualify for Medicaid or Medicare. According to Wal-Mart Facts. om, If an average full-time Wal-Mart employee chooses the least expensive family coverage plan, they would have to spend over 20% of their income before the health insurance provided any reimbursement. An average full time Wal-Mart Associate faces a serious family health issue. They have to pay the entire out-of-pocket maximum for the least expensive health plan, which adds up to pay 53% of their income (Wake Up Wal-Mart, 2008). I am just a customer of Wal-Mart. I am an accountant, so I budget my money pretty well and I love a good bargain. However, when I look at this organization and their business practices all I see is greed. Therefore, as a customer I have to question my whether or not to continue to support this business if they persist on behaving in such an manner that is clearly unfair to its employees. This is not a struggling organization. It brings in sales exceeding $100 billion annually. Wal-Mart has the resources to make their employees NEEDS a priority. I would like to believe that they are sincerely willing to make the necessary changes. Wal-Mart’s management behaves immorally towards its employees. They do not value their employees’ needs, rights, or the labor laws that the US put into lace to protect them. Wal-Mart’s low price on everyday household products is what sets them apart from other discount retailers. Their employees help make it possible for them to dominate their competitors in the discount retail market and maintain their competitive advantage. It is essential for employees to feel that the company that employs them provides an ethical organizational culture in order for them to feel a sense of job security and to be motivated to be productive for the company. What is Organizational Culture? What type of OC does Wal-Mart reflect?  What effect does their OC have on employee job satisfaction, morale, and performance? What can management do to improve their employee relations? According to our text Organizational Behavior, 11th Edition, a company’s organizational culture is a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization. The culture is the behaviors that employees feel they are required to fit in order to meet the expectations of their organization (Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn, Uhl-Bien, 2010, p. 12). On of the OCI’s that the Human Synergistic Study addresses the Aggressive/Defensive Culture. The cultural norms are built upon a value structure whereby management puts its own interests before those of its key constituents—its customers, employees, suppliers, and even stockholders. Members place priority on doing what is best for themselves over the long-term best interests of their organization. Previous organizational successes (due to prior leadership, technological patents, or good business strategies) fuel the arrogance and short-term orientation of management and allow Aggressive/Defensive organizations to continue to appear effective—at least for a while. However, as shown by John Kotter and James Heskett’s study of 207 organizations (and consistent with research based on the OCI), this type of value structure prevents organizations from effectively adapting to changes in their environments and ultimately has a negative impact on their financial performance (Human Synergistic 2006). Your business strategies shift; your organization’s values should not. Organizational values guide employee actions and influence business practices. They help provide meaning for employees searching for an emotional connection to work each day. Also known as ground rules or operating principles, at their best values are actionable guidelines, not to be confused with abstract beliefs that are merely â€Å"held† or posted on a plaque (Organizational Values, 2008). † In an Aggressive/Defensive Culture, management tends to have very little value for people. There focus is on setting goals and meeting them by any means necessary. They are very competitive and want to devour the competition. Some of the characteristics of this type of culture are oppositional, competitive, motivated by power, and perfection. Managers may oppose things indirectly, stubborn, always has to be right, avoids admitting mistakes, resists suggestions made by others, and have a strong need to win or dominate. Their members do not feel any sense of job security. Employees typically believe that they have to go with the follow in an effort to avoid the label â€Å"troublemaker† in order to keep their job. They fears managements’ retaliation and often feel as though they are in a hostile work environment (Human Synergistic 2006). Staff turnover is near 20-year highs for many companies. Two research firms, Walker Information and Hudson Institute, recently joined forces to conduct a nationwide employee loyalty study. Their results confirmed that staff loyalty is in short supply. Only 24 percent of employees consider themselves truly loyal, committed to their organization and its goals, and planning to stay at least two years. Thirty-three percent of employees were high risk, not committed and not planning to stay. Thirty-nine percent were classified as trapped. They plan to stay, but are not committed to their employer. Among those who felt they worked for an ethical organization, 55 percent were truly loyal. For those who did not feel they worked for an ethical organization, the loyalty figure was 9 percent (Lowenstein 2006). Creating a culture within the organization that nurtures loyalty, commitment, advocacy and productivity from the moment the new hire walks through the door and throughout the lifecycle of the employee will go a long way to sustaining customer loyalty behavior. The good news is that employees, particularly those in customer service, seek trust and trustworthiness; and they desire to be active contributors to that effort (Lowenstein 2006). The benefits for business of adopting ethical human resource management practices and viewing employees as human capital to be developed and to provide a unique advantage in the marketplace can be utilized as part of a corporate social responsibility strategy. Effective corporate social responsibility requires that along with minimizing harm to the environment, a company needs to be aware of the social impacts of its operations and ensure that they are not harming human stakeholders (Tracey Lloyd 2009). The importance of health insurance as an employee benefit is also illustrated by the fact that more than one quarter of Americans report that they or an immediate family member have encountered job lock, passed up a job opportunity, stayed at a job they would otherwise have quit, or had not retired solely because they needed to keep the health insurance coverage they were receiving. According to another survey, employees are moderately satisfied with their benefits, with 39% of full-time workers reporting this, which is a rise from 32% in 2003 (Reddick 2009). Employers who hope to retain solid, hard-working employees should be prepared to offer basic employee benefits. In addition to salary, good benefits provide important resources that not only help build a positive working relationship between employer and employee but also promote good work habits and financial practices (Thompson 2010). Wal-Mart problem is their leadership style. It reflects many of the characteristics of an Aggressive/Defensive Culture. Its issues stem from them putting their interest before the needs of their members. It does not value its employees as of Human Capital. Employees are just another resource used to achieve the organizational objectives. Wal-Mart leaders invest a lot into making decisions and strategies that will get the best prices for their customers and keep their competitive advantages. Nevertheless, they are not investing enough time and effort in training managers on how to treat their human capital. As a result, managers are presented with problems that they have no been trained for and they avoid the issue or make bad decisions. I find it hard to believe an organization as large and successful as Wal-Mart can make these types of mistakes and they go unrecognized or resolved for so long. Several people had to have been complaining about the errors before having to go before a judge. Considering the validation of the errors during the trial investigation, it is safe to say that if Wal-Mart had done its due diligence prior to trial they would have resolved this pay issue. There is no reason a company of Wal-Mart’s size and resources could not have identified and addressed the discrepancy prior to it escalating to a court issue. Which raises the question of, was this done intentionally or their employees concerns or grievances are not a priority to them. This type of mmoral behavior ultimately leads to employees distrusting the company, resulting in a low morale, lack of motivation, and high turnover. Every company has a distinct set of characteristics that drives the decisions, practices, policies, procedures, and organizational goals, which in turn affects the organizations’ atmosphere. The biggest influences are going to come from the visions and standards that the Senior Leaders of the company. Wal-Mart’s employees do not feel any emotional connection or sense of value from their organization, which leads to a lack of job satisfaction, loyalty, and commitment. Of course, this is going to show up in how employees treat customers. All Wal-Mart has to offer is low prices, there is very little customer service. For example, I pulled up to customerservicescoreboard. com and some one posted this comment. â€Å"Wal-Mart has the worst customer service, worse yet, they ignore any inquiry and advertise that they value it I really have to commit to not shopping there any more lines are long, cashiers are slow and dont even help put bags in carts. Their greeters wont get carts and roll their eyes, the bathrooms are a mess, the shelves are empty, I hope they get what they deserve ower customer count and lower profits today I tried once more and wasnt disappointed, no carts, very long lines and best yet customer service said there was no manager on duty and there were not customer complaint forms go figure. mad at Wal-Mart 4/1/10 2:21PM â€Å". In order to change this Wal-Mart has to consider ways to attract and retain productive employees (Customer 2009). Another issue is the lack on emphasis on teamwork. Employees concerns and suggestions have no validity. They are not included in any part of the goal setting or decision making process on the individual store retail level. The â€Å"my way or no way† management attitude does not work. There has to be some compromise. SOLUTIONS Wal-Mart has to change their leadership style. The CEO and other major Leaderships need to take a more active role in establishing acceptable managerial behavioral procedures and rules to direct the organization. Instead of reacting to all of the bad press concerning their employee relations they need to take a more active approach to dealing with all of the stigmas attached to the company. For example, they can start by sending out a corporate communication-notifying managers and employees that the company is about to undergo so major changes to and are about to invest in an organization overhaul that will put just as much value in taking care of the associates that make their sales possible and they put into their valued customers. Wal-Mart can continue to ride the cloud of success with no regards to the long-term ramifications of lack of change, but these are the cost of avoidance. Change will be forced upon them one of two ways. The lawsuits will continue to come and the courts will make to settlements high enough that Wal-Mart will feel the financial sting of their unethical behavior. Secondly, they will start to see a significant decrease in their sales because of the poor customer services rendered by their distrusting, low morale, and unmotivated associates. Considering how large Wal-Mart’s organization is this change would be a major project they could consider doing it in-house, but I suggest they hire an outside consulting firm that to oversee the project in order to get some fresh ideas and strategies. Of course, they would be collaborating with Wal-Marts project team in order to what the deliverables are to complete the project. Wal-Mart Leaders need to ensure total participation by giving the project team the financial and staff resources needed to complete the project. The first step would be to perform a training needs analysis and determine where the practice and policy breakdowns are occurring. Then address the issue, by establishing a new uniform policy, updating the employee handbook, training managers and employees on the new policies, and finally enforcing it. This project will take about a year to prepared, reviewed, and implemented. Prioritization will be according to the most critical needs, such as proper employee pay protocol, anti- discrimination policy training, and team building programs. For example, have a workplace diversity class set up to teach managers how to cultivate diversity and to prevent discrimination. Require that managers have a complete training class annually. Address and investigate all allegations of discrimination immediately. Written documentation is required for discrimination allegation, investigation, and resolution steps that taken. The only way to ensure that employees feel a since of organizational justice is to uphold the companies policies on the matter. Consequently, immediate punishment is required if an employee found guilty of the allegation. Send out corporate communication, notifying employees of the companies’ commitment to improve employee relations. Send the communication via email and display it in high traffic areas. Express managements desire to include employees in some of the decisions that directly affect them by establishing an Employee Involvement Team to be apart of the project. That will help Management and employees address employee concerns and grievances, such as a fair and competitive wages and health insurance package. Allowing employees to be apart of the decision making process will help management get feedback on the best ways to go about achieving up coming goals, while building team commitment, loyalty, and moral. There will be annual policies will be reviews and revision if necessary. Managers and employees will complete skill assessment tests annually. There will be skill-training classes set up to teach managers how to promote effective communication and leadership abilities. Issue training results to department heads and certificates of completion to participants. Finally, collect feedback from the managers and employees to evaluate, results and feelings on the process improvements. Leave a comment section to get their feelings on the companies’ efforts to improve employee relations. Identify remaining problems and work with the In-house Project Team and the Employee Involvement Team to improve them.

Competition in Energy Drinks Essay Example for Free

Competition in Energy Drinks Essay 1. What are the strategically relevant components of the global and U. S. beverage industry macro-environment? How do the economic characteristics of the alternative beverage segment of the industry differ from that of other beverage categories? Explain. The strategically relevant components of the global and U. S. beverage industry macro-environment are essentially the expansion of the market for alternative beverages by introducing energy drinks, sports drinks, and vitamin drinks in international markets, and increasing the market size of alternative beverages by extending current product lines and developing new products. Numerous factors affect the achievement of this strategy and they include: Size of the Market: It is without question that the global beverage industry is a large one, with the dollar value of the market being $1581. 7 billion in 2009 and volume sales (in billions of liters) being $458. 30. Regarding the distribution of sales in regards to beverage type, carbonated soft drinks came on top with 12,919. 3 (millions of gallons) being sold and leading to a market share of 48. 2%. Next in volume of sales was bottled water with a sales volume of 8,435. 3 and 29. 2% market share. Fruit beverage sales were 3,579. 2 and a market share of 12. 4%. In the alternative beverage category, sports drinks sales were 1,157. 8 and a market share of 4%, ready-to-drink tea sales were 901. 4 with a market share of 3. 1%, flavored or enhanced water sales were 460 with a market share of 1. 6%, energy drink sales volumes were 354. 5 with a market share of 1. 2%, and ready-to-drink coffee sales volume was 51. 5 with a market share of 0. 2%. In 2009, the industry worldwide sales of alternative beverages were 40. 2 billion, with sales in the US accounting for 42. 3% of the sales. Asia-Pacific accounted for 31. 5%, Europe 22. 2%, and the Americas (excluding the US) 4%. Growth Rate: There has been a steady growth in the value of the global beverage industry over the years. Between the years 2005 and 2009, there has been a constant increase in the dollar value of sales, and this increase has also been forecasted between the years 2010 and 2014. Regarding the alternate beverages, we see an increase in sales over the years that even surpasses that of the global beverage industry. Market Segmentation: The market for global alternative drinks has been in existence for a while, and beverages have been chosen and selected into groups based on the type of products. The different groups include sports drinks, energy drinks, vitamin-enhanced beverages, and relaxation drinks, with comfort and relaxation been of utmost importance to the consumer. In 2009, the alternative beverage drink with the most sales was sports drinks with sales of nearly 60%. Vitamin enhanced followed in sales by 23% and energy drinks came closely behind with sales of18% during that same year. Scope of Competition: The major worldwide producers of beverages are Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, and Red Bull. There are also smaller companies in the same industry, by their production do not compare to the three major companies. Among the most important competitive features of the alternative beverage industry include product innovation, efficient distribution systems, and distinct differentiation. 2. What is competition like in the alternative beverage industry? Which of the five competitive forces is strongest? Which is weakest? What competitive forces seem to have the greatest effect on industry attractiveness and the potential profitability of new entrants? Competition in the alternative beverage industry is in favor of the three major producers, especially Coca-Cola and PepsiCo. Since their alternative beverage product offerings are numerous, and they supply to grocery stores, convenience stores etc. who have a high demand for their products, they avoid vulnerability to buyer leverage and always have shelve space in these channels. Of the five competitive forces, the intensity of competitive rivalry among the sellers of alternative beverages is the strongest. Bargaining power and buyer leverage are also among the strongest. Individuals who purchased the alternative beverages for convenience stores, grocery stores and wholesale clubs have the advantage of negotiating prices with the producers of the alternative beverages because of the fact that they are purchasing such large quantities of the products. Even though the majority of energy drinks were purchased in convenience stores, sports drinks and vitamin-enhanced beverages were also available in most delis and restaurants and were also sometimes sold at sporting events and in vending machines. The weakest competitive force in the alternative beverage industry appears to be the bargaining power and leverage of sellers. Due to the fact that there are many suppliers in this niche, the competition is quite intense it becomes important to have features such as ingredients, more attractive packaging etc.to differentiate them from other brands. The competitive force that seems to have the greatest effect on industry attractiveness and potential profitability of new entrants is the threat of new competition. Since the alternative beverage industry is a very lucrative one and tends to carry high price points, this profitability becomes very attractive to new entrants because of the possibility of being able to achieve success in the industry. 3. How is the market for energy drinks, sports drinks and vitamin-enhanced beverages changing? What are the underlying drivers of change and how might those forces individually or collectively make the industry more or less attractive? The market for energy drinks, sports drinks and vitamin-enhanced beverages has changed a lot over the years and will continue to see changes well into the future. The underlying drivers of change include changes in growth rate (decrease) and innovation. Worldwide dollar sales of alternative beverages grew by more that 13% annually between the year 2005 and 2007, however, it slowed down to about 6% between 2007 and 2009. One might argue that the reason for this decline is the impact the ongoing recession has on the beverage industry. Beverage producers continue to maintain their optimism for the industry regarding future prospects that will be brought to fruition by innovation in brands, flavors, and formulations. These are the facets that they believe will support their premium pricing and volume increases. 4. What does your strategic group map of the energy drink, sports drink, and vitamin-enhanced beverage industry look like? Which strategic groups do you think are in the best positions? The worst positions? The strategic group map shows the leading alternative drink producers competing both geographically and in regards to variety of drinks offered, there are therefore the strategic groups in the best positions. The alternative drink companies are not only competing domestically, but in an international scale as well. Hansen Natural, the producers of Monster energy drink, who splits distribution of it’s energy drinks between Anheuser-Busch and Coca-Cola is not only successful in the United States, but in Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Monaco. The company has also entered agreements to have its beverages available in Mexico and Australia. In a similar fashion, Rockstar has been able to venture internationally by having its products distributed by PepsiCo in foreign countries. The countries Rockstar is currently being distributed are Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Germany, Switzerland, Finland, Spin, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In a similar fashion as the aforementioned alternative drink producers, Red Bull also has a brand presence both domestically and internationally, specifically in Europe and the Americas. The strategic groups in the worst positions appear to be those companies with a single brand e. g. , ViB, Dream Water, etc. operating solely domestically. With the amount of competition in the market currently, it does not appear that these company will fare well in the long-term. 5. What key factors determine the success of alternative beverage producers? There are three key factors that determine the success of alternative beverage producers and they include: Access to distribution In order for the alternative beverages to achieve the sales volumes that its producer desires, it first has to be widely available in stores on a consistent basis. With brand popularity comes the advantage of having a product readily available on store shelves. Innovation With competition being as tight as it is in the alternative beverage industry, innovation is of utmost importance because it sets a product or a company aside for its competitors. Innovation can be achieved by entering into different product lines or creating completely different categories of alternative beverages. Brand image A company’s image is very important when it pertains to competing in whatever industry it does business in. Choosing the right image to portray in advertisement, marketing, etc. could possibly be what retains customer loyalty, or sways a customer’s decision to purchase their product over that of a rival. 6. What recommendations would you make to Coca-Cola to improve its competitiveness in the global alternative beverage industry? To PepsiCo? To Red Bull GmbH? Since it is apparent that Coca-Cola is growing at a much slower pace that its competitors in the alternative beverage market, I recommend that it take building brand image and continual innovation and new product development into consideration. Portraying the right image in advertisement and marketing could lead to retention in customer loyalty and regaining lost market share. Since PepsiCo is ranked number one worldwide for the sale of alternative beverages, with it’s best-selling alternative beverages including Gatorade, which held a 75% share of it’s 1. 57 billion US sports drink market, Propel, SoBe Lifewater, Amp Energy drinks, and No Fear energy drinks, I would recommend that the company continue to build upon this ranking by taking the necessary steps to boost their brand image. I would also recommend that PepsiCo include energy shots to it’s product line-up to further boost sales. There is no doubt that Red Bull GmbH has found its niche in the alternative beverage market as the world’s number one seller of energy drinks, making it the third-largest producer of alternative beverages worldwide and the number two seller of alternative beverages in the US and Europe. To continue it’s growth in the US and Europe, I will recommend that the company continue to innovate and develop new products. I will also recommend that in order to further solidify the Red Bull brand, they should venture into production of he other types of alternative beverages. References Gamble, J. (2008). Competition in Energy Drinks, Sports Drinks, and Vitamin-Enhanced Beverages. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Gender and Leadership Style

Gender and Leadership Style Introduction Leadership has had a great impact on the culture, history, and civilization of humankind, thus theoretical explanations for it have been extended throughout the history. Although the term leadership is mostly related with industry and business, it is important to education as well. Therefore it is vital to understand the role of leaders in education and to investigate the impact of gender on leadership style. Despite the large number of female teachers across all levels (i.e. primary, secondary, tertiary), leadership positions are still held mainly by men. Cooper et al. (2000) stated that qualified women educators provide important resource for meeting current and impending school leadership shortages but are often ignored. Meanwhile Young and McLeod (2001) identified that womens entrance into educational leadership will depends on their career aspirations, their leadership orientations or styles, the particular exposure to transformational leadership, their experiences, and the support they gain when entering administration. This section will include early leadership theories, the roles of school leader, relationship between leadership and gender, female leadership styles, differences between leadership styles of men and women, gender stereotypes, prejudice against female leaders and the summary of this chapter. Early Leadership Theories In the early 18th centuries, philosophers recommended a theory of leadership which was termed the Great Man theory. According to Jani (2008), this theory assumed that leaders are born and not made. Whereby leaders usually were members from the aristocracy since they only got a chance to lead; hence, it was considered that good breeding contributed to great leaders. Besides that, this theory also states that when there is a great need, then a great leader arises, like Buddha, Jesus, Churchill and Eisenhower. During that era, women were not taken into account as possible leaders. Even from the name given to this theory illustrates that women were not perceived as leaders, and leadership research during this period were related solely to males. Trait theories were introduced in the year 1904 and were well known up to 1947 (Bass, 1990). This theory assumed that people are born with inherited traits whereby some traits are particularly suited to leadership. It is believed that people who make good leaders have the right combination of traits. And once again, these traits were thought to be inborn, and unique to leaders. Trait theories basically described traits in masculine terms, and these characteristics were considered crucial for successful leadership. In the 1900s, small numbers of women began to enter the workforce. However, only very small proportions of women took up leadership positions in the 1940s. Typically, women were seen as carers, assistants, teachers, or nurses rather than leaders during this period of time (Koziara et al., 1987). Therefore, females were not seen as appropriate in the role of leadership. Soon after the 1940s, researchers began to propose that traits alone were not sufficient to explain effective leadership. They proposed that the interaction of leaders and followers, as well as other situational factors, may be a significant factor in effective leadership. At this stage, leaders were no longer considered to possess inborn characteristics and abilities hence Gardner (1989) proposed a new way of conceptualizing leadership. He said that men learn to lead therefore there is no one that are born to be a leader. This philosophy lead to the behavioural theories of leadership in the 1930s and the perspective began to move from a belief in the inborn characteristics of leaders, to a focus on behaviour which could be acquired or learned. There were four main behavioural studies conducted in conjunction with this theory. Firstly, the University of Iowa researchers which isolated three behavioural dimensions; these were the democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire styles. Secondly, a study by Ohio State University in the 1940s and 1950s. They advanced this body of thought by dividing the behavioural theories into two dimensions which they termed consideration and initiating structure. Consideration was explained as being considerate towards followers ideas and feelings while initiating structure referred to structuring work relationship to meet job goals. The third study was conducted by the University of Michigan which described employee oriented and production oriented dimensions. The findings of this study concluded that employee-oriented employers promoted high group productivity and job satisfaction amongst their employees (Kahn and Katz, 1960). These concepts were extended in 1964, when Blake and Mouton proposed a Managerial Grid. They proposed that by incorporating the two dimensions of concern for people and concern for production the most effective way of leading could be achieved (Blake and Mouton, 1964). All these behavioural theories were proposed in the early 1930s, but only achieved prominence in the 1960s at a time when the number of women in positions of power or authority in organisations were still low. The proportion of women in leadership roles in the USA in 1970, ten years after the behavioural theories were introduced, was only 16 per cent. Moreover, this percentage of women involved in a leadership role was reported to be constant for over a decade (Powell, 1999). However, during this period of research, there was an emerging recognition of the importance of concern for people in the behavioural theories as being an effective leadership quality. A concern for people could be seen as behaviour more typically associated with female. Subsequently, the leadership theories moved on to embrace both individual traits and situational aspects of leadership simultaneously (Bass, 1990). Successful leadership was considered to be dependent on the leaders consideration of situational factors in order for an appropriate leadership style to be chosen to cope with each situation. This theory assumes that the action of a leader depends on a number of situational factors, such as motivation and capability of followers, relationship between the leader and the followers, stress, mood, and etc. Yukl (1989) has identified six situational factors namely, subordinate effort, subordinate ability, organization of the work, cooperation and cohesiveness, resources and support, and external coordination. Situational theories would have predominantly been seen as applying to males in leadership roles because of the low profile of women in management during that time, and it can be assumed that the profile of women in management would not h ave been advanced in any significant way from this body of literature. Additional theories began to be available with mostly focused on the specific leadership styles of leaders, in an attempt to increase the understanding of what constituted effective leadership. These concepts relating to leadership styles were introduced in 1938 by Lewin and Lippitt. They suggested that leaders vary in the way they led in organisations. They proposed three styles of leadership. Firstly, autocratic leaders were originally described as leaders who used their power and their ability to persuade in leading their followers. An autocratic leader was also illustrated as a directive leader. The autocratic style of leadership was not been associated with female gender stereotypical characteristics. The second leadership style was named democratic leadership. This style was explained as a style whereby the leader pursued an open and follower oriented relationship. Leaders who take on this style encouraged followers to establish their own strategies, provided them with a perspective by explaining in advance the procedures for accomplishing the goals, and granted the followers independence to commence their own tasks and congratulating them if they succeed. According to Bass (1990), this leadership style originated from America, and leaders adopting this style were described as caring, considerate, and easy to compromise. This is the first kind of research which was seen to be more favourably aligned to feminine characteristics as compared to masculine characteristics. However, as mentioned previously, during the era when leadership style theories reached prominence, there were still limited women holding leadership positions. As research on gender difference in leadership styles did not occur until 1990, it would appear that the theories on leadership styles would have been written to illustrate male behaviour in leadership roles. Nevertheless, it could be argued that the theories on leadership styles began to raise the profile of women in leadership. This early leadership research may have changed insights about the suitability of women in leadership positions, as a democratic style of leadership could be attributed to both male and female leaders. The third leadership style was described as laissez-faire leadership. The term laissez-faire means to let others act without interference or better known as the hands off style. Laissez-faire leaders were thought to have less confidence in their decision-making responsibility, or in their capability to manage, often avoiding meeting with their subordinates (Bass, 1990). Similar to previous theories, these researches was studied in a male context, probably because of the small numbers of women in leadership roles at that time. In short, all of the theories reviewed portrayed leadership implicitly or explicitly as a male prerogative, and the small numbers of women in leadership positions during the respective periods confirms that the role of leaders was largely seen as a male domain. Not unpredictably, all the researchers and writers on early leadership were men and hence the years of leadership research reflect a male dominance. Denmark (1993), reflected that by ignoring gender as a variable in studying leadership, researchers created many blanks in theoretical and research design. However, gender has begun to be a consideration in the literature in the late 1970s. Gender difference research began to report on differences in behaviour, attitudes, and skills between males and females in general and was subsequently extended to consider abilities such as leadership. The Roles of School Leaders The role of the school leader in successful schools has gone beyond the traditional view of functional management, power, behaviour style, and instructional leadership. In the past, the job of school leader was considered as primarily managerial, however nowadays the realities of our global society have shifted the focus from management to leadership. According to Kowalski, (2003) an effective school administrator typically must be both a manager and a leader. Todays school leaders face more complex expectations. They face a very different student population. At a time when many view the schools as one of the few social organizations, students arrive with very different attitudes, motivations, and needs than students of todays generations (Young and Kochan, 2004). International research indicates that successful schools have leaders who creates a productive and professional school culture (Stoll, 1999), have a clear vision (Fullan, 2003), are knowledgeable about teaching and learning (Wesson and Grady, 1993) and protect schools from demands that make it difficult for schools to operate on a professional basis (Normore, 2004). As for school leaders in less successful schools, they seem to view their role to be more that of a middle manager. While leaders in highly successful schools perceive themselves as educational leaders (Normore, 2004) who contribute to school improvement and school effectiveness (Mortimore and MacBeath, 2001). Effective school leaders are vital to change and improvement, and are clear on expectations for student learning (Fullan, 2003). Expectations of nowadays school leaders include new knowledge and skill for instructional leadership, discipline, supervision, fundraising, and public relations expertise (Shuttleworth, 2003). More responsibility has been added to the job over the years causing some of the best school leaders to slow down until the extent that they have lost much of their leadership, rather than management quality (Normore, 2004; Shuttleworth, 2003; Simkins, 2003). Relationship between Leadership and Gender According to Oshagbemi and Gill (2003), the relationship between gender role and leadership style is the association of masculinity with task-oriented leadership styles and femininity with relationship-oriented styles. This relationship is not so precise for women. Jamieson developed the concept of femininity and masculinity in the year 1995 where behaving feminine is associated with incompetence and behaving masculine is associated with competency. If the masculine model represents the general and dominant model of leadership, women understand that in order to escalate the ranks they have to conform to it (Fernandes and Cabral-Cardoso, 2003). In other words, the same influence strategies that proved to be successful for men are continually used by women too. The main strategy is to develop behaviors feminine enough not to diverge from the gender role expectation, but masculine enough to gain credibility as professionals; in simple terms, women have to create their own leadership sty les. As Gardner (1995) said Leadership is never guaranteed; it must always be renewed. Female Leadership Styles Earlier thinking emphasized that women who had reached leadership positions were imitators of male characteristics, but contemporary theories recognize feminine leadership styles. Like any new trend in traditional settings, it takes years to develop new styles until these styles are understood and well accepted. Women face several barriers that prevent them from involving in leadership positions. Obstacles with this origin have been described as the glass ceiling as a metaphor that halts women in moving up the career ladder at a certain point (Oakley, 2000). Nonetheless, the increasing involvement of women in the labor market in the last half century, and their movement to managerial positions has changed the definition of leadership (Kark, 2004). Rosener (1990) believed that female leadership tends towards a style defined as interactive leadership that involves: encouraging participation; sharing power and information; enhancing self-worth; changing self interests for an overall good; relating power to interpersonal skills; and believing in better performance when feeling good. Women leaders in education need to find the leadership styles that, without denying its feminine origins, result in efficiency. The redefinition of characteristics of an effective school leader, following the current trends of organizational leadership, will help erase gender stereotypes and focus on desirable characteristics that candidates (men or women) bring to the position (Logan, 1998). Differences in the Leadership Styles of Men and Women One possible explanation of gender gap in leadership is that women are deficient in the characteristics and behaviors that are crucial to effective leadership. However, contrary to the idea that women are less suited to leadership than men, Eagly, Alice H., and Marloes L. van Engen (2004) have described female leaders as having cooperative, interactive, and facilitative leadership styles that are more attuned to the needs of modern organizations than the leadership styles that of men. Empirical research has observed such claims about the typical leadership styles of men and women. To determine whether men and women differ in leadership styles, Alice Eagly and Blair Johnson (2004) carried out a meta-analysis of 162 studies that were conducted between 1961 and 1987. Most of these studies distinguished between task-oriented leadership (a style that emphasizes subordinates to follow rules and procedures, maintaining high standards of performance, and making roles explicit) and interpersonally oriented leadership (a style that emphasizes helping subordinates, looking out for their welfare, explaining procedures, and being friendly and available). Besides that, some studies distinguished between leaders who behave democratically and invite subordinates to participate in decision making, known as participative or democratic leadership, and leaders who behave autocratically and discourage subordinates from participating in decision making, known directive or autocratic le adership. Eagly and Johnsons meta-analysis found that the leadership styles of women and men were somewhat stereotypical. In these laboratory and assessment studies, women, more than men, tended to manifest relatively towards interpersonally oriented styles, and men, more than women, tended to display relatively task-oriented styles. In contrast, gender differences in task and interpersonal style were insignificant among leaders occupying managerial roles in organizations. These findings were consistent with the principle that gender differences are lower among managers because male and female managers are selected by similar criteria and subjected to similar organizational socialization. However, in all these studies, one difference did consistently appear: Women leaders displayed a somewhat more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than men did. In the twenty-three studies comparing men and women on the democratic versus autocratic dimension, 92 percent went in the direction of a more democratic and participative style among women. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers identified a type of leadership style that is commonly known as transformational leadership, which is similar to contemporary models of leadership known as visionary, charismatic, and inspirational. The importance of these models is on the ability of the leaders to inspire, stimulate, and motivate followers and to nurture their ability to contribute creatively to the organizational goals. Transformational leadership are differ from transactional leadership, which is a more conventional style that stresses clarifying subordinate responsibilities and using rewards and punishments to encourage subordinates to meet objectives of the organization. Also acknowledged by some researchers is laissez-faire style that is characterized by a general failure to take responsibility for managing or better known as the hands off style. To determine whether male and female leaders differ when evaluated in terms of these new distinctions, Eagly, along with social psychologists Mary Johannesen-Schmidt and Marloes van Engen, carried out a meta-analysis of 45 studies that compared male and female managers on the measures of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. These studies involved organizational leaders, mainly from business and educational organizations. The meta-analysis revealed that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also exceeded male leaders on one component of transactional leadership which is contingent reward behaviors, which consist of rewarding subordinates for doing a good job. Women also exceeded men on the transformational dimension of individualized consideration, which relates to developing and mentoring followers. In contrast, men were more likely than women to display two other aspects of transactional leadership which are active management by ex ception and passive management by exception. Active management by exception refers to attending to followers mistakes and failures to meet standards, while passive management by exception refer to waiting until problems become severe before attending to them. Men, more than women, also displayed laissez-faire leadership, which means they are uninvolved during critical moment. In summary, research has established some small differences in the behavior of male and female leaders. Specifically, women tend to be more democratic and less autocratic than men, a difference that does not yield an overall advantage for either gender. More important for effectiveness are womens tendencies to engage in transformational style and to deliver more rewards for followers good performance. These behaviors have been related with enhanced effectiveness across a wide variety of settings. Consequently, empirical research does not support the thought that the leadership styles of women account for their lesser success in rising into higher-level of leadership positions. Gender Stereotypes Women have traditionally been stereotyped as more socially sensitive and interpersonally competent than men (Korabik 1999). In various studies, the traditional stereotype of women included attributes such as being less competent and less effective in tasks that are required for work outside of home (Glick and Fiske 1999), nurturing, compassionate, considerate, weak, and subservient (Bem 1974), and emotional, subjective, tactful, aware of others feelings, and having feelings that are easily hurt (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972). Stereotypes linked with men, on the other hand, typically included traits such as leaders, dominant, aggressive, independent, objective, and competitive (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972). These gender stereotypes broaden into almost every facet of daily life for both men and women. People interpret communications and speech characteristics through gender stereotypes (Tannen 1990, 2001). Research has also demonstrated that gender stereotypes regarding communication patterns and styles develop early and continue on through adulthood. Other aspects of interpersonal interactions are subjected to gender stereotypes as well. Eagly and Karau (1991) demonstrated that overall, men were perceived as being more capable and were more readily accepted as leaders when they acted in a confident and assertive manner. Although the nature of the task moderated this relationship, men were more likely than women to be thought of as leaders (Eagly and Karau 1991). For women, the same qualifications of assertiveness and confidence could be harmful when they are faced with traditional gender stereotypes. Carli and Eagly (1999) in their summary of the research on influence and leadership emergence highlighted the barriers that faces by women in leadership. Studies conducted in the United States have demonstrated that self-efficacy and self-promotion are beneficial in hiring and promotion practices for men. However, women who engaged in these behaviors as undesirable (Rudman 1998). Therefore, gender stereotypes play a critical role in limiting the opportunities for women to emerge as leaders by decreasing womens access to leadership roles and increasing the obstacles they must overcome in order to become leaders (Eagly and Karau 2002). When women and men leaders behaviors and styles are reviewed, typically one of these paradigms is employed. Eagly and Johnsons (1990) meta-analysis research demonstrated that across studies, no difference was found in the perception of men and women leaders. However, they did report a small but significant finding in which women leaders were perceived as being more participative as compare to their men counterparts. They also highlighted that the source of the perception (self or subordinates) may play an important role on the results. In addition, factors such as the gender of the author, the type of study, and the date of the study had some moderating effects on the results. More recently, Eagly and colleagues have reported meta-analytic results regarding the role of leaders gender in transactional and transformational leadership styles (Eagly, Johannesen-Schimdt, van Engen, and Vinkenburg 2003). These studies found that women leaders, when compared to the males, were perceived as slightly but significantly more likely to engage in transformational behaviors. They also found that men leaders, when compared to the women leaders, were perceived as more transactional leaders. Therefore, it could be concluded that men and women are perceived somewhat differently due to the presence of traditional gender stereotypes. Prejudices against Female Leaders Prejudice against women as leaders is at least partly responsible for the lack of women in leadership positions. Prejudice arises because peoples common views about what a manager or a leader is like do not fit their ideas about women as well as they fit their ideas about men. This inconsistency can be examined in terms of social roles of women, men, and leaders. These role expectations are called descriptive because they indicate what behaviors members of a particular social category might display. Role expectations are also called injunctive because they include consensual expectations about what group members ideally should do. Gender roles are understood as socially shared beliefs about the typical attributes of women and men. According to social role theory, these roles emerge from the societal division of labor between the genders. The underlying principle is that the perceivers infer that peoples actions tend to correspond to their internal dispositions, a cognitive process that has been labeled correspondent inference or correspondence bias. Specifically, the common, nurturing behaviors required by womens domestic and child-care roles and by many female-dominated occupational roles favor inferences that women do possess and should possess common traits. Similarly, the confident, task-oriented activities required by many male-dominated occupations and the breadwinner family role create expectations that men do possess and should possess agentic traits, such as unselfishness, concern for others, and expressiveness, as well as traits such as masterfulness, self-assuredness, and instrumental competency. In general, prejudice in the workplace may arise from the irregularity people perceive between particular workplace roles and the attributes attributed to individuals based on their group membership. Most leadership roles are characterized primarily by agentic attributes and are therefore different with the predominantly common characteristics attributed to women. Although it might seem that gender should be irrelevant in the workplace, it spills over to affect opinions of employees. The resulting incongruity of the female gender role and leadership roles leads not only to decreased prospect that women can be successful leaders, but also to less favorable evaluations of leadership when it is enacted by a woman compared with a man, as shown in many studies that were summarized by Eagly and social psychologist Steven Karau in 2002. Several types of research have shown that women have fewer accesses to leadership roles than men do. Economist Joyce Jacobsens review showed that most studies of actual income and promotion supported the claim of discrimination against women in general and female managers in particular, albeit on a decreasing basis over the years. As shown in a meta-analysis by psychologists Heather Davison and Michael Burke, experiments in which participants evaluated female and male job candidates who were experimentally equated supported the narrower claim of prejudice as a disadvantage for women in relation to male gendertyped positions, which would include most leadership roles. Other studies, such as those by sociologist Martha Foschi, showed that women usually have to meet higher standard to be judged as being competent and possessing leadership ability. In addition, Eagly and Karaus 1991 meta-analysis demonstrated that it is usually less likely that women emerge as leaders in groups, especial ly if the groups task is not particularly demanding of interpersonal skill or is otherwise relatively masculine. Research also has proved the prediction that women have more obstacles to overcome in becoming successful in leadership roles. Specifically, as demonstrated in a meta-analysis by Alice Eagly, Steven Karau, and social psychologist Mona Makhijani, studies of leaders effectiveness, it demonstrated that leaders performed less effectively when the leader role that they occupied was incongruent with their gender role. Women suffered diminished outcomes in roles given especially with masculine definitions, and men suffered somewhat diminished outcomes in roles given with more feminine definitions. As shown in a meta-analysis by Alice Eagly, Mona Makhijani, and social psychologist Bruce Klonsky, more definitive support emerged in an experimental research paradigm that removed possible differences in the leadership behavior of women and men by comparing this behavior. More ultimate support emerged in an experimental research framework that removed possible differences in the leadership behavi or of women and men by equating this behavior. In these studies women fared slightly less well than men did. More important, just as in studies on leaders effectiveness, women fared less well than men did when leader roles were male dominated and when men served as evaluators. In synopsis, pressures to female leaders come from two directions: Conforming closely to their gender role would produce a failure to meet the requirements of their leader role, and conforming closely to their leader role would produce a failure to meet the requirements of their gender role. The latter pressure can result in the prejudicial outcome of receiving lesser rewards for appropriate leader behavior than an equivalent man would receive. In this sense, female leaders face more challenges not encountered by male leaders, especially in leadership roles that are defined in relatively masculine terms. Chapter Summary In conclusion, the outlook for womens involvement in leadership in the twenty-first century is promising as more women enter leadership roles in industrialized nations and thereby reduce the difference between peoples beliefs about women and about leaders. Furthermore, organizations gain from giving women equal access to leader roles, not only because evidence shows that women are at least as effective as men, but also because gender equality increases the pool of potential candidates from which leaders are chosen.