How Language Is Always Changing And Growing - 988 Words

Lippi-Green is making the case that language is always changing and growing. Every human speaks some type of language and begins to learn how to use it. No matter where a person is from they speak some form of language. Living language changes to better fit the needs of the people using it. The English vocabulary has expanded past the King’s English. People no longer use the same words and structures to form sentences in speaking. Old English would not flow and sounds unnatural and forced if it was used today. Spoken and written English are different beasts. Spoken language tends to be more informal and follows a less structured outline. In written language, the language tends to be more formal and does not possess the same nuances as spoken language. Spoken language is the most natural way to communicate. Written language is a more difficult art form to master. It does come natural to everyone and a voice is hard to create in an essay or paper. Lippi-Green points out that hum ans have evolved past walking with the development of bikes, trains, planes, etc. These are all faster than simply walking and have made it possible to travel faster and farther. People fear the evolution of language and want it to stay a static entity. That is nearly impossible. Words and phrases needed to be added to better describe the constantly changing world around us. Spoken language and written language are used for different purposes. They are both needed to have a full understanding of theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Phase of Rapid Change in the English Language783 Words   |  4 PagesChange in the English Language The English language is always changing, however, at the moment it is going through a phase of rapid change, more so than ever before. This more recent change, I believe, is due to mass media and advances in science and technology global communications (Including SMS messaging, the internet, e-mail and other advances in). 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The aim of this paper is to offer a critical review of analytical frameworks applied to how one language autobiography can say a lot about one person’s past experiences and shapes them into who they are today. I will discuss the dialect, bothRead MoreCritical Review Of Analytical Frameworks1624 Words   |  7 PagesIn the past decade, language memoirs, linguistic autobiographies, and learners’ journals and diaries have become a popular means of data collection in applied linguistics. It is not always clear however how one should go about analyzing this data. The aim of this paper is to offer a critical review of analytical frameworks applied to how one language autobiography can say a lot about one person’s p ast experiences and shapes them into who they are today. I will discuss the dialect, both geographicalRead MoreThe Human Communication System Is Important1435 Words   |  6 Pagescommunication system is complex and not always easy to learn. There are multiple components, including phonetics, morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Knowledge of all of these components is what helps for humans to produce language. Linguistic competence is defined by The Free Dictionary (2008) as a speaker’s implicit, internalized knowledge of the rules of their language. A person with linguistic competence understands how to use a language correctly and properly in order to get

The Hidden Assault On Our Civil Rights - 1742 Words

Every snowflake that has ever fallen from the sky to the ground is different in some shape or form, like our own identities, no two are the same. Some aspects of our identity may be similar to others but in some way it will always be different as we perceive things differently. Our teachings, religion, culture, thoughts, etc†¦ are what defines us and sets us apart from the rest of the world. Kenji Yoshino a Japanese American, as a child was torn between two identities of being Japanese or an American, he later covered up his Japanese identity in order to fit into the social norm of an American. As he grew older Yoshino began to understand his errors and wrote an essay called â€Å"Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights† explaining the†¦show more content†¦Turkle explains how we are losing ourselves to our technology, putting more reliance on technology then our own peers. Distinguishing between identity and performance of identity is a difficult task as an adolescent because they are portrayed as the same thing. However, the idea of flexibility and the advancing of technology helps the adolescents to transition between variety of identities in order to find their one true authentic identity. The advancement of technology has it made it so, that we no longer have a singular identity but multiplicity of identities that has integrated with our own identity, causing us to become flexible to the variety of identities in order for us to find our true identity. Smith introduces â€Å"Dream City† as a place where nothing is singular but everything is doubled, where we have to transition from one place to another in order to communicate with the many dwellers of Dream City. Smith states â€Å"In Dream City everything is doubled, everything is various. You have no choice but to cross boarders and speak in tongues. That’s how you get from your mother to your father, from talking to one set of folks who think you’re no t black enough to another who figure you insufficiently white†(Smith 251-252). Smith presents the idea of flexibility by explaining

Structure and Assembly of Secreted Mucins †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Structure and Assembly of Secreted Mucins. Answer: Introduction: This coral reef cnidarian is radially symmetrical around the axis that is formed around the mouth, or the oral axis and the opposite end which is the aboral axis or the base. It has an opportunistic feeding habit and its radial symmetry allows it to detect prey and predators from any direction. It has a polyp form that has a cylindrical shape and its tentacles are arranged around the mouth. The mouth is surrounded by tentacles that are arranged in six circles. The Cnidarians are radially symmetrical animals and the body develops from only two germinal layers, the inner endoderm and the outer ectoderm that are bound by a mesogleal, non-cellular matrix (Frazo, Vasconcelos, Antunes, 2012). So, cnidarians are essentially diploblastic animals (Van der Burg, Prentis, Surm, Pavasovic, 2016). The body is shaped like a tubular column that is red to brown in color, the tentacles are tapered and blood red in color (Stabili, Schirosi, Parisi, Piraino, Cammarata, 2015). Apart from the function of feeding the tentacles have nematocysts that can paralyse the prey before it pushed into the mouth by the tentacles. Acrorhagi are blue colored structures that lie at the base of each tentacle and these play a role in offense (Harris, 1990). When food is added to water surrounding , Actinia tenebrosa, pre-feeding behaviour can be observed. It is possible to find that some of the sessile polyps do not accept food or do not exhibit any pre-feeding behaviour. On the contrary they may close the oral opening completely when the food comes in contact with their tentacles. This is likely to happen in case of recent feeding or when embryos are being incubated in the coelenteron. On the contrary when Actinia tenebrosa are ready to feed, their tentacles spread out completely as the mouth to the oral cavity opens partially. The oral disc expands completely and a ridged actinopharynx can be observed as it protrudes to the exterior (Harris, 1990). Actinia tenebrosa is an intertidal sea anemone usually is found attached to rocks and if it finds that the location that it is tethered to is unsuitable in some way, it can move to another location, albeit slowly. Fresh specimens when collected from the sea shore and put into an aquarium prefer to attach the base at some support. If the anemone happens to lie by its side, its substratum expands until it can touch base and the it stands erect again. But the process occurs very slowly and may take a few hours to upto two days. It also tends to move away from a source of light, when moving the column protrudes in the direction of the movement and the base is pulled by a millimeter or two in that direction due to the contraction of the basal muscles. Thus, Actinia tenebrosa can exhibit complex behaviour in response to light (Harris, 1990). Immune defence and the role of mucus in cnidarians Mucus plays an important role in development of an innate immune response in cnidarians. Mucus has a lysozyme like activity which can help in killing bacteria. It creates a physical barrier between the lumen and the epithelial lining(Van der Burg, Prentis, Surm, Pavasovic, 2016). The typically sedentary habit of the actinarians and the lack of a protective outer covering, such as a shell, an exoskeleton or a cuticle keeps these animals exposed to a variety of biotic and abiotic threats in their ecosystem that includes microbes that can be pathogenic. The evolution of an immune defence mechanism that keeps these organisms protected consists of the antimicrobial peptides that are a component of the mucous secretions (Otero Gonzalez, et al., 2010). Pattern recognition receptors work with the glycocalyx and strengthen the physicochemical barrier that keeps the organism protected. In Actinarians, the mucus is also known to possess cytotoxic activity and hemolytic activity (Stabili, Schir osi, Parisi, Piraino, Cammarata, 2015). Together, these activities help the organisms to protect themselves throughhumoral immunity from microbial pathogens (Clare, 1995). The mucin proteins are multi-domain proteins and may be either secreted mucins that are gel forming or membrane bound and their domain architectures are very different from one another. Mucins are known to play roles in important biological functions. Mucins can act as ligands for adhesion molecules, growth factors, lectins, chemokines and cytokines (Fong, et al., 2000). Mucin can bind water and thus determine the state of hydration. Mucins block the passage of bacteria and larger molecules and become a barrier for infectious organisms (Pelaseyed, et al., 2014). Mucins have negatively charged oligosaccharides and so can retain positively charged particles when required (Becher, Waldorf, Merete, Uldbjerg, 2009). Mucins play roles in several other biological functions, regulation of gene expression, signal transduction, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, embryogenesis, immunity and apoptosis. Mucins also play a role in carcinogenesis (Becher, Waldorf, Merete, Uldbjerg, 2009). Secreted mucins Secreted mucins contain several disulfide rich domains. The PTS tandem repeat domain is found in all mucins, the secreted and the membrane bound mucins. It is a serine, threonine and proline rich domain that carries the O-linked glycans. The signal sequence at the amino terminus is also found in all mucins and both the secreted and membrane bound mucins feature a signal peptide. It helps the transport of mucins to the endoplasmic reticulum and guides the insertion of the mucin into the unit membrane for secretion or insertion into membrane. The membrane associated mucins have a domain called the cytoplasmic tail which lies on the cytoplasmic side of the cell membrane and is likely involved in cell signalling. The SEA domain is also found in the membrane tethered mucins. This domain has protein binding property and has an autocatalytic cleavage site. The EGFdomains mediate interaction between different mucin subunits and the ERBB receptors. The transmembrane domain spans the membrane (Corfield, 2014). The Cysteine rich domains, the Cysteine knot domain and the von Willebrand factor D domain are the structural features of the secreted mucins. The CYS domains are non-glycosated and multi-copy domains and lie between the tandem repeats, these perform the function of mucin-mucin interaction. The cysteine kno is a domain that is involved in dimerization and the von Willebrand factor D is a domain that mediates oligomerization at the C-terminus (Corfield, 2014). Secreted mucins are those that are secreted by cells such as the goblet cells while the transmembrane mucins remain bound to the plasma membrane Secreted mucins are either the gel forming mucins or soluble mucins. The insoluble type of mucins are usually the gel forming mucins that include MUC2, MUC5AC, MUC5B, MUC6 while MUC19. MUC7, MUC8 and MUC9 belong to the category of soluble mucins (Rachagani, Torres, Moniaux, Batra, 2009). On an evolutionary scale, the gel-forming mucins evolved before the membrane bound mucins. The location of their genes on chromosomes also gives clues to the evolutionary distance between the two types of secreted mucins (Gosalia, Leir, Harris, 2013). The differences also become evident when analysing the structure of their domains, their biosynthetic precursors and the posttranslational modifications of their polypeptide chains. The tandem repeats found in their domains and their functions point to the fact that they belong to the same family of proteins (Zaretsky Wreschner, 2013). Mucins are glycosylated proteins of large size and are essential components of the mucus that covers epithelial cells. Xenopus tropicalis has 26 mucin genes while most vertebrates have 5-6 mucin genes. Mucins form gel like structures and are provide protection to the epithelium from harmful substances and microorganisms (Lang, et al., 2016). In corals, the mucocytes secrete the mucus and the chemical nature is sulphated glycoprotein polymers. The mucus in cnidarians performs the functions of adhesion, reducing drag, acts as a 'scaffolding' and aid in anchoring and protection of eggs, reduce loss of water and provide protection from infections, desiccation and several stressors from the environment(Stabili, Schirosi, Parisi, Piraino, Cammarata, 2015). The gel forming secreted mucins evolved in the metazoans and are found in all animals. Only insects do not have secreted mucins. The MUC proteins are numbered according to the sequence of their discovery. Secreted mucins are components of the mucous that coats the epithelial lining of the digestive tract, the respiratory passage and the urogenital tracts, in some amphibia, the moist skin is also coated with mucus (Lang, Alexandersson, Hansson, Samuelsson, 2004). The presence of mucins in the mucous offers protection to the epithelium from desiccation, infection, physical o r even chemical injury. Its lubricant effects helps the passage of material through the tracts. In higher animals, such as, vertebrates, lubrication and protection of the epithelial lining are the main functions of mucin. But in lower animals, such as, cnidarians, locomotion, mating, homing and capture of prey or food are the main functions of mucus (Denny, 1989). Even within an organism, a variety of mucins are secreted, which are structurally different from each other. At times, one type of mucin may be produced by more than one organ in an organism. The glycoprotein mucin may differ in size from a few hundred amino acids long to thousands of residues in length (Perez-Vilar Hill, 1999). Mucins are rich in Serine, threonine , proline, aspartate, glutamate and glycine residues and form one or more domains that attach the O-linked glycosides and are made of tandem repeats (Goffredo Dubinsky, 2016). The dense arrangement of the oligosaccharides protects the mucin from proteolysis and keep the molecules in an extended conformation (Lang, Alexandersson, Hansson, Samuelsson, 2004). Since mucins are proteins their biosynthesis follows the general pathway of gene expression. And since the mucin glycoproteins are expressed by the goblet cells, the activated transcription factors cause an upregulation of the gene expression of MUC genes in the nucleus, where the activation of gene transcription leads to synthesis of mRNA. mRNA is then spiced and translated into the polypeptide which undergo the process of post-translational modification, and co-translational insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum. The O-linked glycosylation of the polypeptide backbone of mucin occurs in the Golgi bodies (Hanisch, 2001). The enzyme N-acetyl galactosaminylpeptidyltransferase catalyses the transfer of GalNac to serine or threonine. The glycosylation causes the shape of the molecule to change from globular to linear. The completely glycosylated mucin molecules are stored in secretory granules and are secreted to the cell surface when required. The membrane tethered mucins get inserte d into the membrane with the insertion of the transmembrane domain. The addition of the oligosaccharides to the polypeptide, during glycosylation, followed by folding into one or more domains and finally secretion into the lumen of the gut or airways through the goblet cells. The biosynthesis of the mucins, like all other proteins is preceded by the activation or up-regulation of mucin gene/s expression (Rose Voynow, 2006). Structures of mucins were elucidated by cloning and purifying mucins (Albone, Hagen, VanWuyckhuyse, Tabak, 1994). The mucin proteins fold into certain characteristic domains, one of these is the von Willebrand D or the VWD domain. A domain architecture is encountered when studying the structures of MUC5AC, Muc5B and MUC2 that has the domains (VWD-C8-TIL)-( VWD-C8-TIL)-( VWD-C8-TIL)-PTS-( VWD-C8-TIL). (The C8 domain stands for eight conserved cysteines and TIL stands for "trypsin inhibitor-like cysteine rich domain). A similar domain structure is found in the mucin proteins MUC6 and MUC19except that these two mucins are devoid of the VWD-C8-TIL at the C-terminal. while the CysD domain is found in MUC2 or MUC5 type mucins. Typically mucins have a cystine knot at the C-terminal, while some mucins have a VWF domain. (Lang, et al., 2016). The stimulation of gene expression of mucin genes can occur through inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor , interleukins, interferons or cytokines, bacterial products, growth factors, environmental pollutants or chemicals or contact with miscellaneous chemicals that trigger intracellular signalling in the cells to active the gene expression of mucins (Thai, Loukoianov, Wachi, Wu, 2008). In several diseases that involve the respiratory airways, such as cystic fibrosis, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hyper secretion of mucus is a common symptom (Angelis, et al., 2014). The inflammation of the epithelial linings and altered production of mucus in the airways is also a common symptom in asthma patients(Holgate, 2007). Increased expression of the mucin gene or genes is a natural precursor of increased mucus secretion. Cytokines Interleukin -4, IL-9 and IL-13 have been associated with the diseases that involve airway inflammation (Schuijs, Willart, Hammad, Lambrecht, 2013). When interleukins-1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18 and TNF were used to treat cultures of human epithelial cells of the tracheo-bronchial region, it was found that mucin genes, MUC5B and MUC5AC could be stimulated by IL-6 and IL-17, while IL-4, IL-9 and IL-13 did not stimulate the expression of the mucin genes. The ERK signalling pathway played a role in stimulating the gene expression of the tested mucin genes (Chen, et al., 2003). Location of the secreted mucins of the gel forming type occur at several locations. The MUC2 gel-forming mucin is expressed in jejunum colon, ileum and endometrium. The MUC5AC is secreted in the respiratory tract, stomach, conjuctiva, endocervix and the endometrium (Ho, et al., 2004). The MUC5B is expressed in the respiratory tract, endocervix and in the submandibular glands (Thornton, Howard, Khan, Sheehan, 1997). The mucin MUC6 forms part of the mucus in the stomach, ileum, gall bladder, endometrium and endocervix (Ho, et al., 2004). Among the non-gel-forming secreted mucins, MUC7 is expressed in the sublingual and submandibular glands while the mucin MUC8 is secreted in the respiratory tract, the endocervix, the endometrium and the uterus. MUC9 is expressed in the fallopian tubes. Transmembrane mucins As the name suggests the transmembrane mucin family includes mucins that remain bound to the membrane. The membrane bound mucins may have splice variants that may get secreted or these may undergo post translational processing that renders the mucin domains cleaved from the domains that are transmembrane in location. Examples of membrane bound mucins are MUC1, MUC4 AND MUC16 (Govindarajan Gipson, 2010). The generic structure of all transmembrane mucins has a large extracellular domain which has tandem repeat motifs that bind the O-linked oligosaccharides, a short domain that is transmembrane in location and a short cytoplasmic tail. The signal sequence at the N-terminal is encoded by mucin mRNA while translation occurs in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. For the addition of the oligosaccharides through glycosylation, the mucins are processed in the Golgi bodies. The oligosaccharides contribute to mucin functions of lubrication, anti-adhesion and hydration. If sialic acid and sulfation modifications are found, those can be associated with adhesion-promoting motifs and might even provide a surface for bacterial binding (Chaturvedi, Singh, Batra, 2008). The domains that are characteristic of the membrane bound mucins include the SEA (Sea urchin sperm protein, enterokinase, agrin) domain (with the exception of MUC4), the epithelial growth factor like domain, the glycosylated internal r epeat domain, von Willebrand factor domain, AMOP adhesion associated domain, PDZ binding motif and the NIDO domain (Van Putten Strijbis, 2017). The receptor like structure of the membrane bound mucins is similar to that of innate immune receptors. The extracellular domains perform barrier functions while the intracellular cytoplasmic domains can perform the function of signal transduction once they are phosphorylated. Proteolysis can lead to the shedding of the extracellular domain if they bind to bacteria and send signals for phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic domains. These changes can alter the cellular response to epithelial cell adhesion, inflammatory response, apoptosis and differentiation (Van Putten Strijbis, 2017). The transmembrane mucins are expressed on the surface of goblet cells and epithelial cells of the stomach the intestines, the respiratory system, the lacrimal and salivary glands, pancreas, gall bladder, liver and they differ among themselves based on the number of domains and the length. These proteins protect the epidermal surface from invasion by the pathogens and maintain the mucosal barrier function (Van Putten Strijbis, 2017). The SEA domain may have several functions but one of them is the ability to protect the epithelial cells from mechanical force and acts as a cell protective device (Pelaseyed, et al., 2013). The shedding of the extracellular domains of mucins in the serum, intestinal lumen and in supernatants of cell cultures on further investigation has proved to be indicative of diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (Buisine, et al., 2001), metastatic carcinoma (Smorodinsky, et al., 1996) and cystic fibrosis (Khatri, Ho, Specian, Forstner, 2001). Transmembrane m ucins are known to be overexpressed in various cancers, cystic fibrosis and even asthma. The domains in the mucins appear to play some role in cancer pathogenesis. The effects of mucins affect cell survival by altering the processes of cell growth, cell proliferation, apoptosis and autophagy. The intracellular domain of the MUC1 mucin serves a s a surface for the binding of signalling proteins (Bafna, Kaur, Batra, 2010). Membrane anchored mucins that are expressed are MUC1, MUC3A, MUC3B, MUC4, MUC12, MUC13, MUC15, MUC16, MUC17, MUC20 AND MUC21, MUC1 is expressed ubiquitously while MUC16 is the largest protein in size. MUC 3, MUC12 and MUC13 are expressed in the gut epithelium while MUC1 and MUC16 are expressed in the epithelia of the female reproductive tract, the respiratory tract and the ocular surface (Gipson, Spurr-Michaud, Tisdale, Menon, 2014). MUC16 is a large mucin that contains 22000 amino acids and is over expressed in ovarian cancer and some other types of cancer and is referred to as the CA125, which is often used to diagnose the cancer. The stimulation of expression occurs due to activation by interferon and tumor necrosis factor . The over expression also occurs in breast and endometrial cancers (Morgado, Sutton, Simmons, Warren, Lu, 2016). The EGFdomains that occur as one of the extracellular domains in membrane bound mucins may interact with EGF receptors and thereby play a role in receptor signalling (Carraway, Ramsauer, Haq, Carraway, 2003). The release of EGF domains perhaps has a role for them at a distant site, as in the case of cytokines. The mucin domains therefore communicate with the cellular environment within and outside the cells (Carraway, Ramsauer, Haq, Carraway, 2003). The regulation of gene expression of mucin genes occurs through the activation of MAPK pathways via cytokines, lipopolysaccharide from Gram negative bacteria and lipid constituents from Gram positive bacteria. Most of these pathways activate the NFB upregulation (Thai, Loukoianov, Wachi, Wu, 2008). The Sp1transcription factors may also upregulate transcription of mucin genes(Thai, Loukoianov, Wachi, Wu, 2008). The expression of the membrane bound mucins occurs at several locations in the body. MUC1 is expressed in the breast duodenum, ileum, pancreas, colo, trachae, bronchii, cornea, conjunctiva, fallopian tubes, uterus, endometrium, endocervix, ectocervix and the vagina (Corfield, 2014). MUC3A/B is associated with cell membranes in the small intestine, the colon and the gall bladder. The mucin MUC4 is expressed in the breast, the respiratory tract, small intestine, the colon, the conjunctiva, the cornea, the ectocervix, the vagina and the endometrium. MUC12 is expressed on the epithelial cell membranes of colon, pancreas, prostte and uterus. MUC13 is associated with the colon, kidney, trachaea and the small intestine (Corfield, 2014). MUC15 is expressed as a membrane tethered mucin in the colon, respiratory tract, small intestine and prostate. MUC16 is expressed in the ovary, cornea, conjunctiva, respitory tract and the endometrium (Corfield, 2014). the several functions of the mucus are inpart fulfilled by the mucins at different locations in the body. Applications of mucin gene Mucins can have applied uses as diagnostic markers, applications in immuno-therapy and gene therapy as delivery vehicles. Mucins have potential applications in the design of drug delivery systems, although mucin acts as a natural barrier in drug delivery because it can reduce drug permeation. Mucin's property of adhesion can be used in drug delivery systems, such as in design of encapsulated microspheres, or in nanoparticle based delivery. It can find applications in the design of mucoadhesive patches, gels or tablets. It may be possible to utilize mucin networks for immobilization of nanomaterials or change the manner of particulate transfer because of its own properties of adhesion or employing the steric forces to use. If drug transmit time in the gastro intestinal tract is to be increased, mucin can be used effectively. If mucoadhesive polymers, such as, poly vinyl pyrrolidone, carboxymethyl cellulose or chitosan are used in conjunction with mucin, the residence time of drugs can be increased and this can enhance the chances of drug absorption (Authimoolam Dziubla, 2016). The role of mucin application in tissue engineering has also been explored by some researchers. Mucin can actually function as a functional scaffold because mucin has been found to associate with lectins and selectins,both carbohydrate binding proteins. At the time of embryo implantation, cervical mucus scaffolds can affect the binding of blastocysts which are rich in L-selectins on the surface. So, mucus-L-selectin binding can affect implantationof embryo to the uterine wall. Drug delivery and applications in regenerative medicine can therefore be based on layer by layer formation of scaffolds (Crouzier, Beckwitt, Ribbeck, 2012). References Albone, E., Hagen, F., VanWuyckhuyse, B., Tabak, L. (1994). Molecular cloning of a rat submandibular gland apomucin. The journal of biological chemistry, 269: 16845-16852. Angelis, N., Porpodis, K., Zarogoulidis, P., Spyratos, D., Kioumis, I., Papaiwannou, A., Zarogoulidis, K. (2014). Airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. . Journal of Thoracic Disease, 6(Suppl 1), S167S172. https://doi.org/10.3978/j. Authimoolam, S., Dziubla, T. (2016). Biopolymeric Mucin and Synthetic PolymerAnalogs: Their Structure, Function andRole in Biomedical Applications. Polymers, 8(d71):oi:10.3390/polym8030071. Bafna, S., Kaur, S., Batra, S. (2010). Membrane-bound mucins: the mechanistic basis for alterations in the growth and survival of cancer cells. . Oncogene, 29(20), 28932904. https://doi.org/10.1038/onc.2010.87. Becher, N., Waldorf, K., Merete, H., Uldbjerg, N. (2009). The cervical mucus plug: Structured review of the literature. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 88(5), 502-513. Buisine, M., Desreumaux, P., Leteurtre, E., Copin, M., Colombel, J., Porchet, N., Aubert, J. (2001). Mucin gene expression in intestinal epithelial cells in Crohn's disease. Gut, 49(4):544-51. Carraway, K., Ramsauer, V., Haq, C., Carraway, C. (2003). Cell signaling through membrane mucins. Bioessays, 25(1):66-71. Chaturvedi, P., Singh, A. P., Batra, S. K. (2008). Structure, evolution, and biology of the MUC4 mucin. The FASEB Journal?: Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 22(4), 966981. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj. Chen, Y., Thai, P., Zhao, Y., Ho, Y., DeSouza, M., Wu, R. (2003). Stimulation of Airway Mucin Gene Expression by Interleukin (IL)-17 through IL-6 Paracrine/Autocrine Loop*. Journal of biological chemistry, 278: 17036-17043. Clare, A. (1995). Marine natural product antifoulants: Status and potential. Biofouling, 9(3): 211-229. Corfield, A. (2014). Mucins; A Biologically Relevant Glycan Barrier in Mucosal Protection.. Biochimica et biophysica acta., 1850.10.1016/j.bbagen.2014.05.003. . Crouzier, T., Beckwitt, C., Ribbeck, K. (2012). Mucin multilayers assembled through sugarlectin interactions. . Biomacromolecules, 13: 34013408. Denny, M. (1989). Invertebrate mucous secretions: functional alternatives to vertebrate paradigms. Symposia of the society for experimental biology, 43:337-66. Fong, A., Erickson, H., Zachariah, J., Poon, S., Schamberg, N., Imai, T., Patel, D. (2000). Ultrastructure and Function of the Fractalkine Mucin Domain in CX3C Chemokine Domain Presentation. Journal of biological chemistry, 275, 3781-3786. Frazo, B., Vasconcelos, V., Antunes, A. (2012). Sea Anemone (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Actiniaria) Toxins: An Overview. Marine Drugs, 10(8), 18121851. https://doi.org/10.3390/md10081812. Gipson, I., Spurr-Michaud, S., Tisdale, A., Menon, B. (2014). Comparison of the Transmembrane Mucins MUC1 and MUC16 in Epithelial Barrier Function. PLoS ONE , 9(6): e100393. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100393. Goffredo, S., Dubinsky, Z. (2016). The Cnidaria, Past, Present and Future. Springer. Gosalia, N., Leir, S.-H., Harris, A. (2013). Coordinate Regulation of the Gel-forming Mucin Genes at Chromosome 11p15.5. . 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Project Hope International

Executive Summary Project Hope international seeks a grant of $25,000 to fund an information technology project for young people in East Palo Alto. The project is aimed at serving 250 young people within the community every year. This will enable them to take advantage of the opportunities brought by information technology and to learn about their rights and roles in fighting human trafficking and gender violence.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Project Hope International specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Introduction Project Hope International is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that runs its operations in South Asia, United States (US) and Africa. The organization’s current mandate is to bridge the technological gap that exists between East Palo Alto and the neighboring Silicon Valley (communities which have been isolated from the rapid economic and technological revolution that has been going i n the neighboring communities). East Palo Alto is a dynamic community with inhabitants hailing from various communities (Plugged In, 2000, p. 1). The mandate of Project Hope international is to provide the technological know-how to empower people to rise against social ills such as human trafficking and gender violence. The technological aid is aimed at complementing educational strategies to create more awareness about human trafficking and gender violence. The organization’s mandate in East Palo Alto is to improve computer access and to ensure the community takes advantage of the opportunities posed by information technology in enriching their lives. The organization’s function revolves around three main concepts of education, enterprising, and accessibility (Plugged In, 2000, p. 1). The organization currently runs an after-school program for people from all backgrounds and ages called community Kids. The main participants of the after school program are students bel ow the age of 12. Several concepts in information technology are taught in this program and they include basic introduction to information technology, graphic design and other concepts. This program is run in collaboration with community-based groups and other relevant stakeholders in the education sector. This is the main factor that acts as the basis for this proposal because it seeks funding for the main class that targets children and teenagers.Advertising Looking for coursework on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To be able to finance effectively this project, project Hope International seeks a grant of $25,000. This financing will be used to cater for 250 children (annually) and provide enough educational opportunities for the improvement of the quality of education in the community. Project Need There is a direct link between gender violence and illiteracy (or a lack of education) (Mathur, 2004, p. 1 2). The same link exists between human trafficking and illiteracy. It is as a result of this revelation that, Project Hope international seeks to educate the local community about the importance of understanding their rights and knowing where to report various social ills that affect them. There is no better way to achieve this objective than through education (Fernando, 2007). However, there are several challenges experienced before education is fully imparted into the local community. The main challenge of imparting this knowledge among community members is the difficulty experienced in realizing a significant educational outreach. Since Project Hope International does not enjoy a vibrant infrastructure of imparting knowledge to community members, such as that evident in the country’s education system, there is a lot to be offered by information technology because it provides the appropriate infrastructure for learning. It is from this understanding that Project Hope Intern ational seeks a $25,000 funding for computer education classes aimed at educating young girls, women and children in the community. The organization’s strategy in imparting knowledge among the young people of the community is mainly based on the principle that, the younger a person is introduced to information technology, the higher the chances of using information technology for economic growth and personal empowerment. Project Objectives There are several objectives which the project intends to achieve. First, the project intends to have a low teacher-student ratio where teaching will be individualized and more effective. The ideal ratio would be one teacher for every six students (Scott, 2000, p. 143). Currently, this ratio is not achieved because of a lack of enough facilities and resources to run the program.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Project Hope International specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn Mo re This project also aims to achieve a project-based approach where most learning activities will be undertaken in the context of a project. This teaching strategy is projected to provide more meaning to the learning process because it is assumed that, projects empower children with more skills than most learning methods (Mathur, 2004, p. 12). Ideally, the project aims to encourage students to come up with publications such as magazines, presentations and such like works which highlight various dynamics of gender violence and human trafficking. This project is also designed to take advantage of the flexibility that conventional school curriculums do not provide when teaching various issues of the society (Nicoll, 2006). Since Project Hope international is a non-governmental organization, it aims to exercise this flexibility. It is from this flexibility that the organization seeks to shed light on various social issues affecting the community. Finally, this project aims to highligh t the fact that, technology can be used for various purposes in the community. Most importantly, the project aims to expose young people to the endless strategies they can adopt to use information technology for the advancement of their community and personal lives. Project Impact This project aims to achieve several objectives. The main objective is to improve the community’s level of education regarding gender violence and human trafficking. It is believed that, if the populace is educated about their rights, they can be able to stand up against the above vices, thereby contributing to fight gender violence and human trafficking (Bancroft, 2010, p. 2). It is also believed that, educating the community, and more especially the young people about gender violence and human trafficking, there will be a surge in the demand for accountability and responsibility from the relevant authorities (regarding human trafficking and gender violence) (Kakkar, 2004). Moreover, there is bound to be an increase in the number of ambassadors against gender violence and human trafficking if the community is educated about the consequences and spread of these vices.Advertising Looking for coursework on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Apart from educating the community about their rights and the consequences of gender violence and human trafficking, this project also aims to improve computer access in the community. There is a strong commitment within the organization to ensure that there is adequate internet penetration in the community and that most community members have computers. Currently, Project Hope International operates a computer drop-in-center and a computer networking program which is known as epa.net which acts as a resource for community members to undertake research about various issues in the society (Plugged In, 2000, p. 1). For close to two decades, epa.net has been able to connect 18 community organizations into a common network which has assisted them to develop WebPages and websites which have significantly improved the efficiency of their operations. Project Steps This project is designed to work on two fronts. The first front is centered on forging community partnerships with local organi zations. The second front is centered on availing enterprise high-end computer training (Plugged In, 2000, p. 1). Most of the information technology classes are designed to include the input of community-based organizations and schools. Their contribution is aimed at utilizing the already existing infrastructure for teaching. The entire project aims to integrate the contribution of six community partners, Shule Mandela elementary school, East side preparatory Academy, Children’s preservation network (an after school program), Next Generation day care, Green oaks elementary school and MOMZ (Plugged In, 2000, p. 1). The project will work with third to eight grade students from Shule Mandela elementary school and ninth graders from East side preparatory school. East side preparatory school is a private school in the community. The project will also work with five to nine year olds from Next Generation Daycare. Comprehensively, the program will offer four types of classes in the following sequence: Shule Mandela, MOMZ, Project Hope international Enterprises and Multimedia productions. The first class will be aimed at teaching students how to use computers for creative projects. The first year will focus on introducing computers to students and the second year will be dedicated to introducing students to various types of computer applications such as Microsoft word and the likes. The second phase of the project ensures that, students are versed with the Macintosh operating system. A new class will be started annually. At the third stage of project implementation, students will be required to undertake a project, based on a specific topic area (either human trafficking or gender violence) using desktop publishing or multimedia production. The main aim of this project phase is to introduce students to various information technology projects students can undertake to make an impact in the community. Project Evaluation Since the entire program is divided into re spective stages, several evaluation criteria will be used. The first evaluation criterion will be the development of attendance sheets for all classes which will be compiled into weekly reports. Secondly, class journals will be kept by the respective instructors and sent to all relevant staff. These documents will also be made available online, for review by other stakeholders. Thirdly, a portfolio for each class will also be maintained to include the project outcome for every stage. Lastly, quizzes will also be conducted to test basic class competencies. Organizational Capacity Project Hope International has traditionally been known to be a melting point for most NGOs, donors, policy makers, professionals and other stakeholders in alleviating the social suffering brought about by human trafficking and gender-related violence (Academy for Educational Development, 2006, p. 1). The organization mainly aims to achieve this objective through education, advocacy, and coordination, among some of the stakeholders identified above. There are other NGOs which work with Project Hope International to achieve the same objectives and they include Polaris Project, Free the slaves, Fair fund, The Protection Project and the likes. Though there are many entrants fighting for fair gender treatment and against human trafficking in the society, Project Hope international is unique in its mandate because it has a wider outreach in the most significant areas where human trafficking and gender violence are most prevalent (Academy for Educational Development, 2006, p. 1). These places are Asia and Africa. Other organizations do not have such kind of presence in the continent. Financial Implications Project Hope International seeks $25,000 to finance part of the information technology literacy project. The cumulative total expense for the entire project is estimated at $83,000 for teenagers and children (more than 70% of this population group is targeted by the project) (Plugged In, 2 000, p. 1). If the project costs surpass the planned budget estimates, funds are going to be sourced from the organization’s contingency fund, but the same funds will be replenished within the shortest time possible. So far, there has been significant support from some professionals in the Information technology field who intend to undertake voluntary work within the project’s schedule. Also, as evidenced in earlier sections of this paper, there has been significant support from existing educational institutions in the local community. This project is expected to stretch beyond the period stipulated in the project timetable. This advancement is necessitated by the importance of expanding the educational outreach into other groups of people who would contribute towards the realization of the organization’s objectives. Funding for this expansion will be sourced from well wishers, donors and the organization’s contingency fund. Project Hope intends to acknow ledge the input of its sponsors by publishing their logos in local campaigns and brochures. Conclusion Project Hope International aims to improve the social wellbeing of several communities across the globe. However, it is a strong belief within the organization that, true social liberation, mainly in the areas of human trafficking and gender violence, can be achieved by educating the general populace about the issue and its dynamics. It is from this understanding that this paper seeks to source funding for the improvement of education through information technology. This project goes a long way to ensure the local community contributes to the fight against human trafficking and gender violence. References Academy for Educational Development. (2006). Project Hope International. Web. Bancroft, A. (2010). Importance Of Education: Illustrated In An Oration, Delivered  Before The Trustees, Preceptors Students Of Leicester Academy, On The  Fourth Of July, 1806; At Opening Of A New B uilding For The Use Of That Seminary. New York: Thomas Sturtevant. Fernando, A. (2007). Causes And Aftermaths Of The Economic, Political And Cultural  Migration In The Area Of The Caribbean And Central America During The Xxth  Century. New York: Editions Publibook. Kakkar, S. (2004). Educational Psychology. New York: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. Mathur, K. (2004). Countering Gender Violence: Initiatives Towards Collective Action In  Rajasthan. New York: SAGE. Nicoll, K. (2006). Flexibility And Lifelong Learning: Policy, Discourse And Politics. London: Taylor Francis. Plugged In. (2000). Sample Grant proposal. Web. Scott, P. (2000). Higher Education Reformed. London: Routledge. This coursework on Project Hope International was written and submitted by user Shatterstar to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.